Financing Long-Distance Trade Without Banks: The Joint Liability Rule and Bills of Exchange in 18th-Century France

Over time, international trade expanded beyond the reach of an individual's personal networks. How was long-distance trade among strangers financed without using banks? I argue that the joint liability rule enabled the medieval bill of exchange to become a major form of payment and credit in the early modern period which in turn supported an unparalleled expansion of trade. This article empirically examines the role that joint liability played in ameliorating fundamental information problems in long-distance trade finance.

The ascent and decline of a great balneological resort: PUCIOASA

Balneo Research Journal ◽

10.12680/balneo.2020.387 ◽

2020 ◽

pp. 498-500

Author(s):

Doroteea TEOIBAS-SERBAN ◽

Liviu IORDACHE ◽

Dan BLENDEA

Keyword(s):

Water Analysis ◽

18Th Century ◽

Local Level ◽

Iron Concentration ◽

Long Distance ◽

Number Of Patients ◽

The Government ◽

High Level ◽

In The Beginning ◽

Rehabilitation Clinic

Introduction. Pucioasa is one of the greater and sadly, almost forgotten balneological resort of Romania. Known since the 18th century, where it was discovered a record of this area on the Austrian map in 1791 with sulphurous streams, the healing waters of the “Pe Pucioasa” hill enters the therapeutic balneological circle when the first water analysis occurred – 1821-1828 by Dr. Trangot von Schobel. In 1878, Ion Ghica, a prominent figure in Romania at that time initiated the exploitation of 14 wells from the 30 known streams of sulphurous and ferruginous waters, thus obtaining enough healing mineral water for a capacity of 60 beds of the balneological establishment. Since 1841, the Resort developed, transformed into a Rehabilitation Clinic (1969) and the number of patients treated there increased from 20 in the beginning to 1000 patient per day. Many of the patients included foreign elite society members who came regularly to benefit from the waters’ healing properties, both external and internal cures, setting Pucioasa on a high level of not only balneology treatment, but also of balneological tourism. Matherials and methods: Studying local industrializations and water analysis, we concluded that there were many factors that contributed to the decline of this great and international renowned balneological resort. The first wrong step in this direction was made when building and extending de gypsum carrier, the peek being between 1970 and 1975, when the industrial forging process made the sulphurous streams to migrate, and the waters from the wells diminished in its sulphur and iron concentration. Another possible factor for the decline can be the modernisation of the medical world, development of anti-inflammatory drugs and modern medical equipment which reduced the need for the elite society to come a long distance for the balneological treatment. Results: Whichever of the reasons, the once prosperous Balneological Resort of Pucioasa fell into an unknown, unimpressive place, known and frequented only by the locals. The Rehabilitation Clinic still has 60 beds, which are occupied to the maximum each month, it still prospers on a local level, but lost its glory from almost a century ago. Conclusions: The Romanian general population and the government must take an interest to one of the many once prosperous balneological resorts in order to revive the national treasure of Romania which is balneology, which many of the developed European countries only wish that they can possess. Keywords: Balneary Resort, Pucioasa,

A concise review of lobster utilization by worldwide human populations from prehistory to the modern era

ICES Journal of Marine Science ◽

10.1093/icesjms/fsv066 ◽

2015 ◽

Vol 72 (suppl_1) ◽

pp. i7-i21 ◽

Cited By ~ 13

Author(s):

Ehud Spanier ◽

Kari L. Lavalli ◽

Jason S. Goldstein ◽

Johan C. Groeneveld ◽

Gareth L. Jordaan ◽

...

Keyword(s):

20Th Century ◽

18Th Century ◽

Fishing Effort ◽

Human Populations ◽

Ancient Greek ◽

Long Distance ◽

Economic Resource ◽

European Contact ◽

Long Distance Transport ◽

History Of

Abstract Lobsters are important resources throughout the world's oceans, providing food security, employment, and a trading commodity. Whereas marine biologists generally focus on modern impacts of fisheries, here we explore the deep history of lobster exploitation by prehistorical humans and ancient civilizations, through the first half of the 20th century. Evidence of lobster use comprises midden remains, artwork, artefacts, writings about lobsters, and written sources describing the fishing practices of indigenous peoples. Evidence from archaeological dig sites is potentially biased because lobster shells are relatively thin and easily degraded in most midden soils; in some cases, they may have been used as fertilizer for crops instead of being dumped in middens. Lobsters were a valuable food and economic resource for early coastal peoples, and ancient Greek and Roman Mediterranean civilizations amassed considerable knowledge of their biology and fisheries. Before European contact, lobsters were utilized by indigenous societies in the Americas, southern Africa, Australia, and New Zealand at seemingly sustainable levels, even while other fish and molluscan species may have been overfished. All written records suggest that coastal lobster populations were dense, even in the presence of abundant and large groundfish predators, and that lobsters were much larger than at present. Lobsters gained a reputation as “food for the poor” in 17th and 18th century Europe and parts of North America, but became a fashionable seafood commodity during the mid-19th century. High demand led to intensified fishing effort with improved fishing gear and boats, and advances in preservation and long-distance transport. By the early 20th century, coastal stocks were overfished in many places and average lobster size was significantly reduced. With overfishing came attempts to regulate fisheries, which have varied over time and have met with limited success.

Women, Gender, and the Economies of Colonial North America

Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History ◽

10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.013.811 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Ellen Hartigan-O'Connor

Keyword(s):

North America ◽

18Th Century ◽

Women's Labor ◽

Long Distance ◽

Transatlantic Slave Trade ◽

Material Basis ◽

Economic Production ◽

The Caribbean ◽

Increasing Demand ◽

Gender System

North American women were at the center of trade, exchange, economic production, and reproduction, from early encounters in the 16th century through the development of colonies, confederations, and nations by the end of the 18th century. They worked for the daily survival of their communities; they provided the material basis for economic and political expansion. There were no economies without them and no economy existed outside of a gender system that shaped and supported it. Connections of family, household, and community embedded the market economies in each region of North America. Gender acted through credit networks, control over others’ labor, and legal patterns of property ownership. Colonialism, by which Europeans sought to acquire land, extract resources, grow profitable crops, and create a base of consumers for European manufactured goods, transformed local and transatlantic economies. Women’s labor in agriculture, trade, and reproduction changed in the context of expanding international economies, created by the transatlantic slave trade, new financial tools for long-distance investment, and an increasing demand for tropical groceries (tea, coffee, and sugar) and dry goods. Women adjusted their work to earn the money or goods that allowed them to participate in these circuits of exchange. Captive women themselves became exchangeable goods. By the end of the 18th century, people living across North America and the Caribbean had adopted revised and blended ideas about gender and commerce. Some came to redefine the economy itself as a force operating independently of women’s daily subsistence, a symbolic realm that divided as much as connected people.

Corporate Directors:In Search of a European Normative Model for Legal Persons as Board Members

European Company and Financial Law Review ◽

10.1515/ecfr-2017-0028 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 14 (4) ◽

pp. 609-636

Author(s):

Paula del Val Talens

Keyword(s):

Corporate Governance ◽

Policy Decision ◽

Business Environment ◽

Liability Rule ◽

Member States ◽

Joint Liability ◽

Societas Europaea ◽

Company Directors ◽

Core Elements ◽

Potential Applications

Juridical persons may be appointed as company directors in a number of European Member States, such as France, Belgium Spain or Italy, while this practice is forbidden in other jurisdictions (traditionally, Germany and, today, the United Kingdom). The lawfulness of the so-called «corporate directors» depends on a policy decision that legislators may make after balancing potential benefits and risks deriving from placing corporate bodies on the board. Corporate directors are not an essential tool for the European business environment, but are indeed a European corporate governance practice which does provide flexibility and operative advantages. This paper evaluates regulatory alternatives for both domestic legislation and prospective European instruments. It analyses how placing legal entities on a board may affect corporate governance and underlines their potential applications, namely, in groups of companies. It then examines two opposite policy approaches to corporate directors, an express prohibition and an explicit admission, as considered by certain Member States and article 47.1 of the Societas Europaea Regulation. We further explore the predominant model for the admission of corporate directors, which is based on three core elements: an enabling provision, the compulsory appointment of a permanent representative, and a joint liability rule.

Long Distance Implantation of Vernacular Architecture Traditions: The Canadians in Early Louisiana

Material Culture Review ◽

10.7202/1073852ar ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 88-89 ◽

pp. 45-78

Author(s):

Jay D. Edwards

Keyword(s):

Relative Abundance ◽

Mississippi River ◽

18Th Century ◽

Gulf Coast ◽

Architectural History ◽

Vernacular Architecture ◽

Long Distance ◽

Lower Mississippi River ◽

Mississippi Gulf Coast ◽

First Time

This study explores the architectural contributions of Canadians to Louisiana in the 18th century. One of the most revealing arenas in American architectural history concerns the origins of new vernacular traditions in locations being settled for the first time by Europeans. Between the late 15th and 18th centuries, many settlement experiments occurred along the coastlines of the Atlantic. Yet the dearth of reliable documentation from the earliest years of colonial establishment renders elusive a sound understanding of the factors which shaped these foundational architectural transformations. The result: a loss of understanding of the very essence of our American vernacular traditions. This study examines one such case for which a relative abundance of documentation survives—the Canadians in Louisiana. It traces the architectural transformations that materialized when Canadians attempted to found a new colony on the Mississippi Gulf Coast and the lower Mississippi River Valley, beginning in 1699.

Development of a Wheel Chair Automator – A Review

FUOYE Journal of Engineering and Technology ◽

10.46792/fuoyejet.v5i2.516 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 5 (2) ◽

Author(s):

Adeniran Badejoko-Okunade ◽

Adefemi Adekunle ◽

Oluwole Arowolo ◽

Samuel Adejuyigbe

Keyword(s):

18Th Century ◽

Limited Range ◽

Obstacle Detection ◽

Long Distance ◽

External Interference ◽

Powered Wheelchair ◽

Manual Wheelchair ◽

Wide Range ◽

Wheel Chair ◽

Physically Disabled People

The first wheelchair model could be traced to the 5th, 6th and later in 18th century. However, tremendous development and great achievements in this field started mid of 20th century. Since that time, varieties of models have been designed, leading to wide range of products. This work involves the development of an automator (ergonomically attachment) to convert a manual wheelchair into an electric wheelchair for domestic use by Nigerian physically disabled people who could not pay the high cost of a ready-made motorized or an electric-powered wheelchair. A gear motor and drive system has been integrated in this automator for convenience and easy control for the user. Two units of 12v batteries and breaking system has also been integrated into this work and by this, obtained an automatic wheelchair which can be driven with the possibility of avoiding obstacles by the use of the obstacle detection components. In addition, obstacle detection component is also incorporated to the system to serve as added alert feature in case the wheelchair is been used by a blind user. The automator which is attached to the wheelchair has been developed to enhance easy and long distance movement. It helped the disabled move around without external interference. A manual wheelchair does not give sufficient mobility, it has a limited range and is very difficult to use on rough and harsh terrain. This work is designed as a solution to this problem by combining the comfort and maneuverability of a wheelchair with the capability and efficiency to move about. This work will benefit the physically challenged people.Keywords—Automator, obstacle detection, electric-powered wheelchair, wheel chair, mobility.

Georg Forster in Vilnius: Reverberations of the great age of ocean navigation

Acta Orientalia Vilnensia ◽

10.15388/aov.2009.3666 ◽

2009 ◽

Vol 10 (1-2) ◽

pp. 139-164

Author(s):

Dalia Švambarytė

Keyword(s):

Natural History ◽

Travel Literature ◽

Western Europe ◽

18Th Century ◽

Pacific Region ◽

Long Distance ◽

Academic Field ◽

The Pacific ◽

Vilnius University ◽

Oriental Studies

Vilnius University This article discusses the contribution to the studies of the ‘Eastern’ and ‘Southern’ lands in the 18th century by naturalist, travel writer, and ethnologist George Forster, who had accompanied his father, Johann Reinhold Forster, on Captain James Cook’s expedition of 1772–5 to circumnavigate the globe and who was a professor of natural history at Vilnius University from 1784 to 1787. The paper presents the background of European long-distance navigation, examines Forster’s contribution to Cook’s second voyage, and reconsiders his work completed at the Vilnian Academy against the broader perspective of the European notions of travel literature and ethnography of the Pacific region, as well as the prospect of Oriental studies, gradually emerging as an academic field in Western Europe and, later on, in Vilnius.

«A quei tempi». Spagnolismo e teatro all’italiana. Miti e stereotipi

Studi e saggi - Ricerche sul teatro classico spagnolo in Italia e oltralpe (secoli XVI-XVIII) ◽

10.36253/978-88-5518-150-1.25 ◽

2020 ◽

pp. 421-434

Author(s):

Piermario Vescovo

Keyword(s):

Spanish Literature ◽

18Th Century ◽

Great Depth ◽

Observation Point ◽

Turn Of The Century ◽

Long Distance ◽

Critical History ◽

History Of ◽

Large Period ◽

The Relationship

The contribution concerns the relationship between Pietro Napoli Signorelli, his Storia critica de’ teatri antichi e moderni (Critical history of ancient and modern theaters), and the defense of Spanish literature by the Jesuit Francisco Saverio Lampillas, and the answer in Critical essay which Pietro Napoli Signorelli published in 1783. An Italian who spent a large period of his life in Spain and a Spaniard who lives and writes in Italy offer an observation point of extraordinary importance, almost a cross-reflection of the ideas and clichés of "Spanishism" and "Italianism” that had dominated the 18th Century. The critique of "Spanishism" and the long distance from the siglo de oro, from the triumph of metaphor and irregularity, in relation to the critique of what begins to be called the "commedia dell'arte", shows, at the turn of the century, just beyond the defense of the respective traditions and the positions of the two contenders, a change taking place of great depth that is announced on the European cultural scene, transforming the horizons of controversy into renewed myths.