Deterioration in water quality from supply chain to household and appropriate storage in the context of intermittent water supplies

Many water providers in urban developing country contexts have to supply the water intermittently due to the disparity between rapidly growing demand and investment in supply infrastructure. This can lead to water quality risks such as ingress of polluted groundwater and unsafe household storage. This study has investigated the common risks and possible alternative solutions down the supply chain in the Nagpur municipal piped network through quantitative and qualitative data collection. The water quality testing indicated a significant reduction in water quality between tap and point-of-use. Interviews and a sanitary survey indicated storage design, inappropriate extraction practice and children's access as the most frequent household storage risks. The people with socio-economically lower status were found to be in greatest need of interventions. The study leads to the following recommendations: there is a need for the evolution of a Water Safety Plan to enable supportive structures for good risk assessment which includes all stakeholders from source to point-of-use; community awareness of water quality risks needs to be raised; low cost ‘improved’ water storage at household level should be promoted; and the levels of residual chlorine should be investigated and adjustments made to assure potable water at point-of-use.

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Water quality management for domestic rainwater harvesting systems in Fiji

Water Science & Technology Water Supply ◽

10.2166/ws.2014.093 ◽

2014 ◽

Vol 15 (1) ◽

pp. 134-141 ◽

Cited By ~ 4

Author(s):

J. P. Kohlitz ◽

M. D. Smith

Keyword(s):

Water Quality ◽

Quality Management ◽

Rainwater Harvesting ◽

Water Quality Management ◽

Water Safety ◽

Structured Interviews ◽

Household Level ◽

Limited Government ◽

Qualitative Research Design ◽

Harvesting Systems

Health risks from drinking rainwater are relatively small in the developing world context, but action is needed to ensure water safety. Water safety plans (WSPs) use an approach to manage water quality that has shown signs of success with public and communal water supplies, but relatively little research has been done to investigate the application of WSPs to self-supply systems. The aim of this paper is to investigate the primary issues surrounding appropriate water quality management of domestic rainwater harvesting (DRWH) systems in Fiji and consider how the principles of WSPs can be applied in this context. A qualitative research design was followed, utilising semi-structured interviews with 34 rural households and six key informants, sanitary inspections of DRWH systems and thematic data analysis. A number of challenges, including limited government resources and the limited knowledge and casual attitudes of rural rainwater consumers, constrain the practicality of adopting conventional WSPs at the household level, but steps for improvement can be taken.

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Locally produced hydrogen sulphide detecting water quality test kits increase household level monitoring in rural Tanzania

Journal of Water and Health ◽

10.2166/wh.2018.220 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 16 (3) ◽

pp. 359-368 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

Fatuma Matwewe ◽

Kate Hyland ◽

Jacqueline Thomas

Keyword(s):

Water Quality ◽

Hydrogen Sulphide ◽

Water Sources ◽

Water Safety ◽

National Guidelines ◽

Community Members ◽

Quality Test ◽

Household Level ◽

Rural Tanzania ◽

Test Kit

Abstract In developing countries, rural water sources have the highest levels of faecal contamination but are the least monitored. Affordable field-based water quality tests are needed. The presence of faecal indicator bacteria can be determined with hydrogen sulphide (H2S) detecting tests, that are inexpensive and simple to make locally. In rural Tanzania, a non-governmental organisation (NGO) designed, produced and evaluated a new H2S water quality test kit. The H2S test results correlated with log10Escherichia coli densities from conventional water quality tests. The production cost was US$ 1.10 and the test retailed for US$ 1.37. In total, 433 tests were sold through local pharmacies and NGOs. Additionally, 165 WaSH education meetings, reaching 3,408 community members, were conducted with the H2S test demonstrated in over half the meetings. Pre- and post-surveys of 294 meeting participants saw an increased reporting of household level water treatment by 24%. The H2S test was widely accepted, with 94% of those surveyed willing to buy the test in the future. International and national guidelines for drinking water monitoring need to be amended to include locally produced H2S water quality tests. This will enable households to monitor their own water sources and make informed choices about water safety and treatment.

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Web enablement of a Water Safety Plan via the municipal-based electronic Water Quality Management System (eWQMS)

Water Science & Technology Water Supply ◽

10.2166/ws.2011.089 ◽

2011 ◽

Vol 11 (5) ◽

pp. 568-577

Author(s):

P. F. de Souza ◽

J. E. Burgess ◽

M. Swart ◽

V. Naidoo ◽

A. Blanckenberg

Keyword(s):

Water Quality ◽

Drinking Water ◽

Quality Management ◽

Management System ◽

Quality Management System ◽

Water Quality Management ◽

Water Services ◽

Water Safety ◽

Safety Plan ◽

Water Safety Plan

Despite a good legislative framework, South Africa faces significant challenges in the sustainable provision of adequate and safe water services. To improve the situation, South Africa's Department of Water Affairs (DWA) and other water sector partners undertook initiatives to assist municipalities with operation and management of water services. By way of example, in 2006, the municipal engineering oriented electronic Water Quality Management System (eWQMS) was implemented, providing municipalities with a platform for loading drinking water quality data and tracking performance of key water services management functions. Following this in 2008, DWA introduced an incentive-based regulatory programme, Blue Drop Certification (BDC), and the associated regulatory drinking water quality information system, the Blue Drop System (BDS) which is, for example, populated with data loaded by municipalities onto eWQMS. An integral part of BDC is the development of Water Safety Plans (WSPs). Due to the challenges faced by municipalities in developing WSPs, the Water Research Commission (WRC) saw a need to assist municipalities, and subsequently a generic Water Safety Plan for Small Community Water Supplies was developed. The WRC also saw the need to develop an easy-to-use WSP tool for municipalities. The eWQMS was selected as the platform for making the tool available. This paper presents the development of a web-enabled WSP tool on the eWQMS which ultimately will provide the information to the BDS.

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Study of Long-Term Effectiveness of Water Safety Plan Applied to Microfiltered Water Dispensers to Improve Water Quality

Water ◽

10.3390/w13202905 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 13 (20) ◽

pp. 2905

Author(s):

Marta Mazzotta ◽

Silvano Salaris ◽

Maria Rosaria Pascale ◽

Luna Girolamini ◽

Graziella Ciani ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Water Quality ◽

Drinking Water ◽

Pathogenic Bacteria ◽

Temperature Threshold ◽

Water Safety ◽

Plastic Pollution ◽

Safety Plan ◽

Water Safety Plan ◽

Plate Counts ◽

High Level

The use of Microfiltered Water Dispensers (MWDs) is increasing in offices, companies, or commercial facilities, as a response to plastic pollution. Despite their widespread use, poor data are available about the water quality and pathogens developed. Starting from a high contamination found in MWDs, a Water Safety Plan (WSP) was implemented on 57 MWDs to improve the water quality. To assess the effectiveness of WSP during the period 2017–2021, the environmental monitoring of heterotrophic plate counts (HPCs) at 36 °C and 22 °C, Enterococcus spp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Clostridium perfringens, as prescribed by Italian regulation for drinking water, was conducted. A high level of HPCs at both temperatures was observed, over the regulation limit; contrarily, the pathogenic bacteria were absent. The contamination found was studied with respect to the temperature threshold of 25 °C, suggested by directives. No significant differences were found between samples above and below the threshold, while a significant decrease over the years was observed for HPCs at 36 °C (p = 0.0000000001) and 22 °C (p = 0.000006). The WSP implementation resulted in a 43.09% decrease for HPCs at 36 °C and a 24.26% decrease for HPCs at 22 °C. Moreover, during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, the WSP contributed to limit the microbial contamination, preserving the MWDs’ functionality and hygienic conditions and the drinking water quality.

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Awareness, adoption and implementation of the water safety plan methodology: insights from five Latin American and Caribbean experiences

Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development ◽

10.2166/washdev.2013.001 ◽

2013 ◽

Vol 3 (4) ◽

pp. 541-548 ◽

Cited By ~ 5

Author(s):

Brian Hubbard ◽

Richard Gelting ◽

Maria del Carmen Portillo ◽

Tom Williams ◽

Ricardo Torres

Keyword(s):

Water Quality ◽

Drinking Water ◽

Latin American ◽

Drinking Water Quality ◽

World Health ◽

Who Guidelines ◽

Water Safety ◽

Adoption And Implementation ◽

Safety Plan ◽

Water Safety Plan

Considerable effort has been made worldwide to disseminate information and provide technical assistance to encourage the adoption and implementation of the water safety plan (WSP) methodology. Described since the third edition of the World Health Organization (WHO) Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, a WSP provides guidance for water utilities to ensure the delivery of safe drinking water and protect health. Attention is now being given to understand the success of efforts to advance adoption of the WSP methodology in the Latin America and Caribbean (LAC) region. More specifically, there is interest in knowing how early adopters developed strategies to implement the WSP methodology and what challenges exist for further implementation. To better understand adoption and implementation trends, key informants from five LAC countries were interviewed and case studies were developed to reveal the diversity of WSP approaches applied in the region. Results indicate that WSP implementation is more widespread than previously reported. Respondents affirmed that the WHO Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality are routinely used as a model for country-level drinking-water regulations, which has led to uptake of the WSP methodology. Interview respondents also revealed innovative national strategic approaches for WSP implementation.

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The Role of Water Boards in Water Safety Plan Implementation in South Africa

Water Practice & Technology ◽

10.2166/wpt.2010.002 ◽

2010 ◽

Vol 5 (1) ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

K.L. Lubout

Keyword(s):

South Africa ◽

Supply Chain ◽

Water Supply ◽

Support Systems ◽

Similar Process ◽

Water Services ◽

Water Safety ◽

Safety Plan ◽

Water Safety Plan ◽

Water Boards

Water boards act as water services providers to water services authorities (local authorities) in most of the major metropolitan areas in South Africa. These water boards manage a significant portion of the water supply chain and influence both up and downstream activities in this chain. It thus stands to reason that these agencies play a pivotal role in the development and implementation of appropriate water management plans aligned to universally accepted practice. As a leader in the water industry in South Africa, Rand Water is well advanced in implementing a “customised” water safety plan in its area of operation, and has been requested by various stakeholders in the industry to assist with a similar process in other regions. During the development of the organisations' water safety plan it became evident that certain support systems had to be put in place to ensure successful implementation of such a plan. As a result, an additional procedure (procedure 11) was included in the water safety plan to address support activities such as communication, training/education and consumer relations. These support systems have been developed to address specific requirements of internal and external stakeholders/customers and cover the entire supply chain to ensure a sound understanding of all aspects influencing water supply.

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Time series study of weather, water quality, and acute gastroenteritis at Water Safety Plan implementation sites in France and Spain

International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health ◽

10.1016/j.ijheh.2018.04.001 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 221 (4) ◽

pp. 714-726 ◽

Cited By ~ 10

Author(s):

Karen E. Setty ◽

Jerome Enault ◽

Jean-Francois Loret ◽

Claudia Puigdomenech Serra ◽

Jordi Martin-Alonso ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Water Quality ◽

Time Series ◽

Acute Gastroenteritis ◽

Water Safety ◽

Plan Implementation ◽

Time Series Study ◽

Safety Plan ◽

Water Safety Plan ◽

Series Study

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A Screening Approach for Assessing Groundwater Quality for Consumption in Small Islands: Case Study of 45 Inhabited Islands in the Maldives

Water ◽

10.3390/w12082209 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 12 (8) ◽

pp. 2209

Author(s):

Mohamed Ibrahim Jaleel ◽

Shaheeda Adam Ibrahim ◽

Afsal Hussain ◽

Mohamed Mustafa ◽

Assela Pathirana

Keyword(s):

Water Quality ◽

Groundwater Quality ◽

Low Cost ◽

Small Island ◽

Household Level ◽

Geographically Dispersed ◽

Elevated Salinity ◽

Spatial Coverage ◽

Groundwater Assessment ◽

Alternative Water

The expense and logistical difficulties of groundwater assessment in geographically dispersed, small landmasses, prevent it from being widely applied in small island developing countries. We propose a survey-based approach for screening groundwater quality using crowd-sourced information. A household-level survey was conducted in 45 selected inhabited islands across 11 atolls of the Maldives. In each island, covering a sample size between 16 and 85 (median 50) households, use of groundwater, the perceived quality and household groundwater treatment methods applied, were surveyed. The respondents perceived groundwater as highly contaminated and non-potable, but due to the lack of alternative water resources, almost all respondents used it for non-potable purposes. Over 84% of the surveyed islands reported varying degrees of elevated salinity. The water quality indicators of odor, color, and debris were seen to be significantly correlated to each other, but salinity did not show such a correlation. Salinity increased with population density and decreased with the area of the island as well as the latitude. Household treatment of groundwater was rare. Due to the ease of deployment, rapidity of assessment, low cost, and good spatial coverage, crowd-sourced water quality screening can be a viable and important approach alongside detailed groundwater investigation studies.

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Unchartered waters: the unintended impacts of residual chlorine on water quality and biofilms

npj Biofilms and Microbiomes ◽

10.1038/s41522-020-00144-w ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 6 (1) ◽

Author(s):

Katherine E. Fish ◽

Nik Reeves-McLaren ◽

Stewart Husband ◽

Joby Boxall

Keyword(s):

Water Quality ◽

Drinking Water ◽

Distribution Systems ◽

Water Distribution ◽

Internal Surface ◽

Free Chlorine ◽

Residual Chlorine ◽

Water Safety ◽

Internal Surface Area ◽

Drinking Water Distribution Systems

Abstract Disinfection residuals in drinking water protect water quality and public heath by limiting planktonic microbial regrowth during distribution. However, we do not consider the consequences and selective pressures of such residuals on the ubiquitous biofilms that persist on the vast internal surface area of drinking water distribution systems. Using a full scale experimental facility, integrated analyses were applied to determine the physical, chemical and biological impacts of different free chlorine regimes on biofilm characteristics (composition, structure and microbiome) and water quality. Unexpectedly, higher free chlorine concentrations resulted in greater water quality degredation, observable as elevated inorganic loading and greater discolouration (a major cause of water quality complaints and a mask for other failures). High-chlorine concentrations also reduced biofilm cell concentrations but selected for a distinct biofilm bacterial community and inorganic composition, presenting unique risks. The results challenge the assumption that a measurable free chlorine residual necessarily assures drinking water safety.

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