<p>A systematic investigation was undertaken of the techniques (materials and technologies) used to construct the shell of the New Zealand house (envelope and interior linings) between 1792 and 1982. Using census, manufacturing and import statistics with analysis of local and international archives and publications, principal techniques were selected and documented. A review of local construction and building publications provide a background to the development of construction education and training, as well as the speed of change. Analysis of census data showed that from 1858 to 1981 the majority of dwelling walls in terms of construction (appearance) were timber, brick, board or concrete, while the structure was timber frame. Analysis of import data for seven materials (galvanised iron, asbestos cement, cement, window glass, wood nails, gypsum and roofing slate) from 1870 to 1965 found the UK was a majority supplier until 1925, except for USA gypsum. For the rest of the period, the UK continued to play a preeminent role with increasing Australian imports and local manufacture. Examination of archival and published information on techniques used for the sub-floor, floor, wall (construction and structure), fenestration, roof and thermal insulation provide an overview of country of orign, decade of arrival, spread of use and, if relevant, reasons for failure. Forty materials (including earth and brick, stone, cement and concrete, timber and ferrous metals) and twenty-four technologies are documented. Revised dates of first NZ use are provided for eight of these e.g. the shift from balloon to platform framing occurred in the early 1880s rather than 1890s. Three case studies examine different aspects of the techniques (nails 1860 to 1965, hollow concrete blocks 1904 to 1910 and camerated concrete 1908 to 1920). The research shows that timber was the predominant structural (framing) material from 1792 to 1982. From the 1930s there was a shift away from timber construction (external appearance) to a wider range of products, including brick, board (asbestos- and more recently fibre-cement) and concrete. A new chronological classification of house development is proposed. These techniques travelled in a variety of ways and at speeds which indicate over this time New Zealand was technologically well connected and supported an innovative construction sector. The techniques covered are: Boards: asbestos, and cellulose fibre-cement, particle, plywood, pumice, softboard, and hardboard; Bricks: double and veneer; Building paper; Cement and lime: local and imported; Concrete: hollow block, monolithic, reinforced, Camerated, Oratonu and Pearse patents; Fired earth: bricks and terracotta roof tiles; Floors: concrete slab, suspended, and terrazzo; Framing: balloon, braced, light steel, and platform; Insulation: cork, fibreglass, macerated paper, perlite, pumice, foil, and mineral wool; Iron and Steel: cast and wrought iron, steel; Linings: fibrous plaster, plasterboard and wet; metal tile, shingles and slates; Nails: cut, hand-made, wire and plates; Piles: concrete, native timber and stone; Roof: strutted and truss rafter; Roofing: aluminium, corrugated iron, ; Sub-floor: vapour barrier, walls and ventilation; Timber: air and kiln drying, glulam, native, pit-saw and preservative treatments; Wall constructions: earth, log, slab, solid timber, raupo and stone; Weatherboards; and Windows: glass, aluminium, steel and timber frames.</p>
“Free-Standing, Wooden, Upright”: The Evolving Cladding and Structure of the New Zealand House, 1858–1981
