scholarly journals Are anti-CTL4 and anti-PD-1 an effective biomarker in immunotherapy?

2022 ◽  
Vol 3 (1) ◽  
pp. 01-04
Author(s):  
Hasibe Vural
Keyword(s):  
Immune System ◽  
Cancer Therapy ◽  
The Body ◽  
Self Knowledge ◽  
The Individual ◽  
The Brain

The task of the immune system is to prevent foreign organisms from entering the body, if microbes have entered the body, to destroy them, to prevent or delay their spread. One of the most important features of the immune system is that it has the ability to recognize and distinguish millions of different microbes that are foreign to it. The immune system, like the brain, evaluates and synthesizes the situation, which is this breeding organ, and produces different training and special responses to microbes, cancer. This is a feature that does not exist in any system or organ except the brain and immune system. In summary, the task of the immune system is to protect the essence of the individual. For this reason, he knows himself first and does not harm the essence. In this context, it can be said that the immune system spends as much effort on self-knowledge as it does on fighting the enemy. This rewiev article is intended to provide an overview of the CTLA-4 and PD-1 pathways and the description of their efficacy in cancer therapy or immunotherapy.

The Ouroboros of Inflammatory Signaling to the Brain for the Control of Neuroendocrine Function

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Georgia E. Hodes
Keyword(s):  
Nervous System ◽  
Immune System ◽  
Immune Regulation ◽  
The Body ◽  
Immune Disorders ◽  
Inflammatory Signaling ◽  
Late 20Th Century ◽  
Immune Systems ◽  
Neuroendocrine Function ◽  
The Brain

In the late 20th century, the discovery that the immune system and central nervous system were not autonomous revolutionized exploration of the mechanisms by which stress contributes to immune disorders and immune regulation contributes to mental illness. There is increasing evidence of stress as integrated across the brain and body. The immune system acts in concert with the peripheral nervous system to shape the brain’s perception of the environment. The brain in turn communicates with the endocrine and immune systems to guide their responses to that environment. Examining the groundwork of mechanisms governing communication between the body and brain will hopefully provide a better understanding of the ontogeny and symptomology of some mood disorders.

Genealogy of the Cerebral Subject

Being Brains ◽  
2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Fernando Vidal ◽  
Francisco Ortega
Keyword(s):  
Nineteenth Century ◽  
Functional Neuroimaging ◽  
The Body ◽  
Self Help ◽  
Brain Structure And Function ◽  
Cerebral Subject ◽  
The Individual ◽  
And Function ◽  
Cerebral Self ◽  
The Brain

The first chapter proposes to trace the distant roots of the cerebral subject to the late seventeenth century, and particularly to debates about the seat of the soul, the corpuscularian theory of matter, and John Locke’s philosophy of personal identity. In the wake of Locke, eighteenth century authors began to assert that the brain is the only part of the body we need to be ourselves. In the nineteenth century, this form of deterministic essentialism contributed to motivate research into brain structure and function, and in turn confirmed the brain-personhood nexus. Since then, from phrenology to functional neuroimaging, neuroscientific knowledge and representations have constituted a powerful support for prescriptive outlooks on the individual and society. “Neuroascesis,” as we call the business that sells programs of cerebral self-discipline, is a case in point, which this chapter also examines. It appeals to the brain and neuroscience as bases for its self-help recipes to enhance memory and reasoning, fight depression, anxiety and compulsions, improve sexual performance, achieve happiness, and even establish a direct contact with God. Yet underneath the neuro surface lie beliefs and even concrete instructions that can be traced to nineteenth-century hygiene manuals.

Imaging and the Human Brain Project: A Review

2002 ◽  
Vol 41 (04) ◽  
pp. 245-260 ◽  
Author(s):  
C. Rosse ◽  
J. F. Brinkley
Keyword(s):  
Human Brain ◽  
Physical Structure ◽  
Imaging Informatics ◽  
The Body ◽  
Human Brain Project ◽  
The Us ◽  
Physical Organization ◽  
The Subject ◽  
The Individual ◽  
The Brain

Summary Objectives: Survey current work primarily funded by the US Human Brain Project (HBP) that involves substantial use of images. Organize this work around a framework based on the physical organization of the body. Methods: Pointers to individual research efforts were obtained through the HBP home page as well as personal contacts from HBP annual meetings. References from these sources were followed to find closely related work. The individual research efforts were then studied and characterized. Results: The subject of the review is the intersection of neuroinformatics (information about the brain), imaging informatics (information about images), and structural informatics (information about the physical structure of the body). Of the 30 funded projects currently listed on the HBP web site, at least 22 make heavy use of images. These projects are described in terms of broad categories of structural imaging, functional imaging, and image-based brain information systems. Conclusions: Understanding the most complex entity known (the brain) gives rise to many interesting and difficult problems in informatics and computer science. Although much progress has been made by HBP and other neuroinformatics researchers, a great many problems remain that will require substantial informatics research efforts. Thus, the HPB can and should be seen as an excellent driving application area for biomedical informatics research.

scholarly journals Endocrine factors in the hypothalamic regulation of food intake in females: a review of the physiological roles and interactions of ghrelin, leptin, thyroid hormones, oestrogen and insulin

2011 ◽  
Vol 24 (1) ◽  
pp. 132-154 ◽  
Author(s):  
V. Somogyi ◽  
A. Gyorffy ◽  
T. J. Scalise ◽  
D. S. Kiss ◽  
G. Goszleth ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Food Intake ◽  
Energy Expenditure ◽  
Thyroid Hormones ◽  
Energy Homeostasis ◽  
The Body ◽  
Feedback Information ◽  
Hypothalamic Regulation ◽  
The Individual ◽  
Desire To Eat ◽  
The Brain

Controlling energy homeostasis involves modulating the desire to eat and regulating energy expenditure. The controlling machinery includes a complex interplay of hormones secreted at various peripheral endocrine endpoints, such as the gastrointestinal tract, the adipose tissue, thyroid gland and thyroid hormone-exporting organs, the ovary and the pancreas, and, last but not least, the brain itself. The peripheral hormones that are the focus of the present review (ghrelin, leptin, thyroid hormones, oestrogen and insulin) play integrated regulatory roles in and provide feedback information on the nutritional and energetic status of the body. As peripheral signals, these hormones modulate central pathways in the brain, including the hypothalamus, to influence food intake, energy expenditure and to maintain energy homeostasis. Since the growth of the literature on the role of various hormones in the regulation of energy homeostasis shows a remarkable and dynamic expansion, it is now becoming increasingly difficult to understand the individual and interactive roles of hormonal mechanisms in their true complexity. Therefore, our goal is to review, in the context of general physiology, the roles of the five best-known peripheral trophic hormones (ghrelin, leptin, thyroid hormones, oestrogen and insulin, respectively) and discuss their interactions in the hypothalamic regulation of food intake.

Evaluation of Temperature Transients at Various Body Temperature Measuring Sites Using a Fast Response Thermistor Bead Sensor

2013 ◽  
Author(s):  
Oleg Vesnovsky ◽  
L. D. Timmie Topoleski ◽  
Laurence W. Grossman ◽  
Jon P. Casamento ◽  
Liang Zhu
Keyword(s):  
Immune System ◽  
Body Temperature ◽  
Pulmonary Artery ◽  
Temperature Control ◽  
Surgical Procedures ◽  
Fast Response ◽  
The Body ◽  
Control Center ◽  
Post Surgery ◽  
The Brain

Body temperature monitoring of humans has been an important tool for helping clinicians diagnose infections, detect fever, monitor thermoregulation functions during surgical procedures, and assess post-surgery recovery.1–3 Fever itself is typically not considered a disease. It is a response of the body to a disease, which is often inflammatory in nature. Elevation of the set point at the body temperature control center, the brain hypothalamus, is caused by circulating pyrogens produced by the immune system responding to diseases. Since the brain hypothalamus is not easily accessed by thermometers, other body locations have been identified as alternative measuring sites. Those sites include the pulmonary artery, rectum, bladder, distal esophagus and nasopharynx, sublingual surface of the tongue, under the armpit, tympanic membrane, and forehead.

scholarly journals Influencia del estrés en la Enfermedad de Alzheimer. // Stress influence in Alzheimer’s disease

Ciencia Unemi ◽  
2018 ◽  
Vol 10 (25) ◽  
pp. 123
Author(s):  
Maria Alejandra Vallejo-Johnson ◽  
Patricia Marcial-Velastegui
Keyword(s):  
Alzheimer’S Disease ◽  
Alzheimer's Disease ◽  
Neuronal Damage ◽  
The Body ◽  
Daily Routine ◽  
Stressful Situation ◽  
The Individual ◽  
Stress Influences ◽  
The Brain

Existen diversos estudios que proponen las causas de la Enfermedad de Alzheimer (EA), las cuales pueden ser: biológicas, genéticas, cronológicas y ambientales, dentro de ésta última se encuentra el estrés como una influencia para el inicio de dicha patología. Según las distintas teorías del estrés, el sujeto, al encontrarse frente a una situación estresante, sufre diversos cambios en su cuerpo para sobrellevar dicho acontecimiento. El cerebro es el encargado de poner al cuerpo en alerta y en marcha para actuar frente a dicho cambio. El estrés prolongado conlleva a alteraciones en las vías cerebrales, específicamente un daño neuronal del hipocampo, el cual es el encargado de los recuerdos y memoria. Éste al verse afectado, repercute en la memoria del sujeto y por lo tanto empieza a fallar; el sujeto se ve en la incapacidad para recordar y realizar distintas actividades rutinarias. Mediante la investigación documental y encuestas a profesionales de la salud, se obtuvo información tanto del estrés como de la Enfermedad de Alzheimer para luego concluir en la influencia del mismo en el origen de la enfermedad. Se concluye que el estrés perenne repercute en la muerte de neuronas del hipocampo lo que conlleva a la EA. AbstractThere are different studies that propose that the causes of Alzheimer might be biological, genetic, chronological and environmental. Within the environmental aspects, the stress influences the beginning of this pathology. There are several studies that propose the causes of Alzheimer's disease (AD), which can be: biological, genetic, chronological and environmental, within the latter is the stress that influences the beginning of this pathology. According to different theories of stress, the individual, while facing a stressful situation, experiences many changes in the body in order to deal with this situation. The brain is in charge of alerting the body to protect itself against that change. The long-term stress alters the brain pathways, producing specifically a neuronal damage in the hippocampus that is responsible for memories and memory. This affects memory and therefore individual begins to fail, and then, the person cannot remember how to do the daily routine. Through bibliographical research and surveys applied to healthcare professionals, information was obtained on both stress and Alzheimer's disease to establish the influence of that condition on the disease. The study concludes that long-term stress affects the death of neurons in the hippocampus, which leads to AD.

scholarly journals On the nerves

1843 ◽  
Vol 4 ◽  
pp. 434-435
Keyword(s):  
Longitudinal Direction ◽  
The Body ◽  
Natural Temperature ◽  
The Will ◽  
Voluntary Motion ◽  
The Individual ◽  
Tubular Membranes ◽  
The Brain

The author gives the results of his examinations, both microscopical and chemical, of the structure and composition of the nerves; and concludes that they consist, in their whole extent, of a congeries of membranous tubes, cylindrical in their form, placed parallel to one another, and united into fasciculi of various sizes; but that neither these fasciculi nor the individual tubes are enveloped by any filamentous tissue; that these tubular membranes are composed of extremely minute filaments, placed in a strictly longitudinal direction, in exact parallelism with each other, and consisting of granules of the same kind as those which form the basis of all the solid structures of the body; and that the matter which fills the tubes is of an oily nature, differing in no essential respect from butter, or soft fat; and remaining of a fluid consistence during the life of the animal, or while it retains its natural temperature, but becoming granular or solid when the animal dies, or its temperature is much reduced. As oily substances are well known to be non-conductors of electricity, and as the nerves have been shown by the experiments of Bischoff to be among the worst possible conductors of this agent, the author contends that the nervous agency can be neither electricity, nor galvanism, nor any property related to those powers; and conceives that the phenomena are best explained on the hypothesis of undulations or vibrations propagated along the course of the tubes which compose the nerves, by the medium of the oily globules they contain. He traces the operation of the various causes which produce sensation, in giving rise to these undulations; and extends the same explanation to the phenomena of voluntary motion, as consisting in undulations, commencing in the brain, as determined by the will, and propagated to the muscles. He corroborates his views by ascribing the effects of cold in diminishing or destroying both sensibility and the power of voluntary motion, particularly as exemplified in the hybernation of animals, to its mechanical operation of diminishing the fluidity, or producing solidity, in the oily medium by which these powers are exercised.

General Paralysis: its Unsolved Problems

1924 ◽  
Vol 70 (288) ◽  
pp. 33-47 ◽  
Author(s):  
R. M. Stewart
Keyword(s):  
Scientific Progress ◽  
The Body ◽  
General Paralysis ◽  
Close Relationship ◽  
Arsenical Compounds ◽  
Latent Interval ◽  
The Individual ◽  
Special Strain ◽  
The Brain ◽  
Gain Access

There is probably no disease in regard to which our views have undergone so radical a change during the past few years as general paralysis of the insane, and none in which the discovery of the causative agent has been followed by so rapid a revolution in standpoint. Although almost from the time of its definition, more than a century ago, the essentially organic nature of the disease and its close relationship to syphilis have been universally recognized, it has required many years of patient study to free it from the hypotheses which have been invoked to explain its obscurities, and, as always happens in scientific progress, in the process of unravelling the knotty problems of this disease, we discover that there are new obstacles and difficulties to be overcome. Is the Spirochóte pallida alone responsible for the genesis of general paralysis? When does it gain access to the nervous system, and how? Is there a special strain of spirochóte, or must the individual resistance of the infected person be considered the deciding factor in the development of the disease? What is the meaning of the long latent interval before the onset of symptoms? What determines the peculiar distribution of the lesions in general paralysis, and is there some particular place in the brain from which the spirochæte starts its wandering? What is the significance of the absence of spirochætes in other organs of the body, and why does the cerebro-spinal fluid contain no organisms at a time when the brain contains millions? Why do tabes, general paralysis and optic atrophy, supposedly of similar origin, not occur in conjunction more frequently? Why is it that arsenical compounds fail to effect a cure?

scholarly journals Pathways of neuro-immune communication: past and present time, clinical application

2020 ◽  
Vol 22 (3) ◽  
pp. 405-418
Author(s):  
E. A. Korneva
Keyword(s):  
Immune System ◽  
Autoimmune Diseases ◽  
Vagus Nerve ◽  
Inflammatory Diseases ◽  
Sympathetic Nerves ◽  
The Body ◽  
Autonomic Nerves ◽  
Neural Pathways ◽  
Pulsed Ultrasound ◽  
The Brain

Fundamental studies in neuroimmunophysiology are the keystone for development of new therapeutic approaches to the treatment of infectious, allergic, oncologic and autoimmune diseases. The achievements in this field allowed approving new treatment methods based on irritation of afferent and efferent fibers of autonomic nerves. That became possible due to numerous studies of pathways between the immune and nervous systems performed over last two decades. The milestones in the history of neuroimmune communication research are represented here. The immune system organs – bone marrow, thymus and spleen are coupled to central nervous system (CNS) via sympathetic nerves. Information about LPS and bacteria emergence in peritoneum, intestine and parenchymal organs reaches the brain via parasympathetic pathways. After vagotomy, the brain neurons do not respond to this kind of antigens. The pattern of brain responses to different applied antigens (the EEG changes and the quantity of c-Fos-positive neurons) is specific for definite antigen, like as algorithms of electroneurogram after exposure to different cytokines. Activation of parasympathetic nerves causes the inhibition of inflammation. The entry of any antigens into the body initiates production of cytokines (IL-1, TNFα, IL-6, IFNγ etc.), via specific receptors which are present on peripheral neurons and terminals of vagus nerve, i.e. the vagal afferent terminals and neurons respond to cytokine action, and these signals are transmitted to CNS neurons. The afferent vagal fibers end on the dorsal vagal complex neurons in the caudal part of medulla oblongata. The information about bacterial antigens, LPS and inflammation is transmitted to the brain via afferent autonomic neural pathways. The speed of this process is high and significantly depends on the rates of cytokine production that are transmitters of signals upon the antigen exposure. It is important to emphasize that this events occur within minutes, and the response to the received information proceeds by reflex mechanisms, i.e., within fraction of a second, as exemplified by inflammation (“inflammation reflex”). This is a fundamentally new and revolutionary discovery in the functional studies of immune system regulation. Clinical efficiency of n. vagus stimulation by pulsed ultrasound was shown, being used for the treatment of inflammatory, allergic and autoimmune diseases, e.g., multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, renal inflammatory diseases. Electrical stimulation of the vagus nerve reduces the death of animals in septic shock by 80%. The mentioned data have made a revolution in understanding the functional arrangement of immune system in the body. A hypothesis is represented, which suggests how the information on the antigen exposure is transmitted to the brain.

scholarly journals Vegetative State from the Perspective of Islamic Law

2019 ◽  
Vol 19 (3&4) ◽  
pp. 102
Author(s):  
Hossein Shamsi Gooshki ◽  
Seyyed Hassan Abedian Kalkhoran ◽  
Seyyed Mohammad Mahdi Ahmadi ◽  
Abolfazl Khoshi ◽  
Hassan Goodarzi
Keyword(s):  
Cerebral Cortex ◽  
Brain Death ◽  
Brain Function ◽  
Islamic Law ◽  
Criminal Responsibility ◽  
Vegetative State ◽  
The Body ◽  
Judicial Affairs ◽  
The Individual ◽  
The Brain

<p>The death of the cerebral cortex is a particular type of brain death that occurs after the destruction of the cerebral cortex (the hemispheres of the brain). It is said that the individual has gone through a vegetative state. This cortex is responsible for controlling voluntary activities of the body. This condition is caused by a coma (anesthesia), and sometimes the individual remains in this state for several years. Although the person looks awake, his/her eyes are open and has some involuntary movements, there is no signs of mental and cognitive function. Moreover, the individual is physically in a state of dementia. Coma is a state in which a person cannot be awakened and does not respond to any stimulation including pain. Generally it lasts few days to a few weeks, after which some patients gradually recover, but some permanently lose all brain function (brain death), while others evolve to a vegetative state (VS). Patients in VS are unconscious and unaware of their surroundings, but they continue to have a sleep-wake cycle and can have periods of consciousness. They are able to breathe spontaneously, retain their gag, cough, sucking, and swallowing reflexes. They often look fairly “normal” to families and friends who hope and pray for their full recovery. Laws and regulations in Islamic countries originate from popular jurisprudence. Therefore, by arguing that the well-known principles of Islam are necessarily legitimate, the phenomenon of vegetative state has been recognized. Jurisprudents have conflicting opinions on brain deaths and these perspectives cannot be considered as a widespread legal basis at the level of macro policy for administrative, medical and judicial affairs. In criminal law, maniac has no criminal responsibility because the punishment is not in line with the purpose of punishment. Consequently, restrictions will be imposed on the patients. Therefore, it can be concluded that a person with vegetative state is compatible with the insanity.</p>

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