scholarly journals System Z for Conditional Belief Bases with Positive and Negative Information

2021 ◽  
Vol 34 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Meliha Sezgin ◽  
Gabriele Kern-Isberner
Keyword(s):  
Negative Information ◽  
Trivial Extension ◽  
Positive Information ◽  
Conditional Belief ◽  
Belief Base ◽  
Belief Bases

In non-monotonic reasoning, conditional belief bases mostly contain positive information in the form of standard conditionals. However, in practice we are often confronted with negative information, stating that a conditional does \emph{not} hold, i.e. we need a suitable approach for reasoning over belief bases $\Delta$ with positive and negative information. In this paper, we investigate the interaction of positive and negative information in a conditional belief base and establish a property for partitions of $\Delta$ that is equivalent to consistency. Based on this property, we develop a non-trivial extension of system Z for mixed conditional belief bases and provide an algorithm to compute this partition.

scholarly journals Selection Strategies for Inductive Reasoning From Conditional Belief Bases and for Belief Change Respecting the Principle of Conditional Preservation

2021 ◽  
Vol 34 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Christoph Beierle ◽  
Gabriele Kern-Isberner
Keyword(s):  
Belief Change ◽  
Inductive Reasoning ◽  
Conditional Belief ◽  
Belief Base ◽  
Belief Bases ◽  
Selection Strategies ◽  
Ranking Model

Given a belief base ∆ consisting of a set of conditionals,there are many different ways an agent may inductivelycomplete the knowledge represented by ∆ to a completeepistemic state; two well-known approaches are given by systemP and system Z, and also each ranking model of ∆ induces afull inference relation. C-representations are special rankingmodels that obey the principle of conditional indifference.Inductive reasoning using c-representations can be done withrespect to all c-representations, with respect to a subclass of,e.g., minimal c-representations, or with respect to singlec-representations. In this paper, we present and investigateselection strategies for determining single c-representations tobe used for inductive reasoning from belief bases. We developaxioms for specifying characteristics of selection strategies.We illustrate which desirable properties, like syntaxsplitting, are ensured by the axioms, and develop constructionsfor obtaining selection strategies satisfying the axioms.Furthermore, we also present and study the extension of selectionstrategies to c-revisions that follow the principle ofconditional preservation and that have been employed successfullyin various belief change settings.

Does Performing Other Audit Tasks Affect Going-Concern Judgments?

1999 ◽  
Vol 74 (4) ◽  
pp. 493-508 ◽  
Author(s):  
Stephen E. Rau ◽  
Donald V. Moser
Keyword(s):  
Information Processing ◽  
Review Process ◽  
Negative Information ◽  
The Other ◽  
Positive Information ◽  
Going Concern ◽  
Staff Members

This study examines whether personally performing other audit tasks can bias supervising seniors' going-concern judgments. During an audit, the senior performs some audit tasks him/herself and delegates other tasks to staff members. When personally performing an audit task, the senior would focus on the evidence related to that task. We predict that such evidence will have greater influence on the senior's subsequent going-concern judgment. The results of our experiment are consistent with our predictions. When provided with an identical set of information, seniors who performed another audit task for which the underlying facts of the case reflected positively (negatively) on the company's viability, subsequently made going-concern judgments that were relatively more positive (negative). Our results also demonstrate that the well-documented tendency of auditors to attend more to negative information does not always dominate auditors' information processing. Subjects who performed the task for which the underlying facts reflected positively on the company's viability directed their attention to such positive information and, consequently, both their memory and judgments were more positive than those of subjects in the other conditions. Recent findings indicating that biases in seniors' going-concern judgments may not be fully offset in the review process are discussed along with other potential implications of our results.

scholarly journals Bad World: The Negativity Bias in International Politics

2019 ◽  
Vol 43 (3) ◽  
pp. 96-140 ◽  
Author(s):  
Dominic D.P. Johnson ◽  
Dominic Tierney
Keyword(s):  
International Relations ◽  
Fundamental Principle ◽  
Human Mind ◽  
Negative Information ◽  
Theory And Practice ◽  
Negativity Bias ◽  
Positive Information ◽  
Psychological Phenomena ◽  
Wide Range ◽  
New Research

A major puzzle in international relations is why states privilege negative over positive information. States tend to inflate threats, exhibit loss aversion, and learn more from failures than from successes. Rationalist accounts fail to explain this phenomenon, because systematically overweighting bad over good may in fact undermine state interests. New research in psychology, however, offers an explanation. The “negativity bias” has emerged as a fundamental principle of the human mind, in which people's response to positive and negative information is asymmetric. Negative factors have greater effects than positive factors across a wide range of psychological phenomena, including cognition, motivation, emotion, information processing, decision-making, learning, and memory. Put simply, bad is stronger than good. Scholars have long pointed to the role of positive biases, such as overconfidence, in causing war, but negative biases are actually more pervasive and may represent a core explanation for patterns of conflict. Positive and negative dispositions apply in different contexts. People privilege negative information about the external environment and other actors, but positive information about themselves. The coexistence of biases can increase the potential for conflict. Decisionmakers simultaneously exaggerate the severity of threats and exhibit overconfidence about their capacity to deal with them. Overall, the negativity bias is a potent force in human judgment and decisionmaking, with important implications for international relations theory and practice.

The Differential Informativeness of Positive and Negative Stock Returns

2020 ◽  
pp. 0148558X2093423
Author(s):  
Eli Amir ◽  
Shai Levi ◽  
Roy Zuckerman
Keyword(s):  
Stock Returns ◽  
Information Leakage ◽  
Negative Information ◽  
Accounting Conservatism ◽  
Regulation Fair Disclosure ◽  
Positive Information ◽  
Share Prices ◽  
Fair Disclosure ◽  
Reg Fd

We show negative stock returns reverse more and contain less information on the long-term changes in share prices than positive stock returns mostly on nondisclosure days, and these information differences between negative and positive returns decrease substantially on disclosure days. The results suggest investors are more likely to acquire positive information on nondisclosure days and to obtain both negative and positive information on disclosure days. Accounting conservatism and litigation exposure compels managers to reveal their negative information in disclosures, and if managers withhold negative information, they do it when investors are less likely to find the information on nondisclosure days. Moreover, we use the exogenous imposition of Regulation Fair Disclosure (Reg. FD) to demonstrate that positive information leakage from firms during the quarter is driving the positive slant in investors’ information. Taken together, our results suggest that disclosure plays an important role in the differential informativeness and reversals of positive and negative returns.

scholarly journals In Human Memory, Good Can Be Stronger Than Bad

2020 ◽  
Vol 29 (1) ◽  
pp. 86-91 ◽  
Author(s):  
Constantine Sedikides ◽  
John J. Skowronski
Keyword(s):  
False Memory ◽  
Psychological Impact ◽  
Human Memory ◽  
Negative Information ◽  
Negative Events ◽  
Regulatory Activity ◽  
Positive Information ◽  
Positive Events ◽  
Self Protection ◽  
Positive Content

Some researchers assert that the psychological impact of negative information is more powerful than that of positive information. This assertion is qualified in the domain of human memory, in which (a) positive content is often favored (in the strength of memories for real stimuli or events and in false-memory generation) over negative content and (b) the affect prompted by memories of positive events is more temporally persistent than the affect prompted by memories of negative events. We suggest that both of these phenomena reflect the actions of self-motives (i.e., self-protection and self-enhancement), which instigate self-regulatory activity and self-relevant processes.

scholarly journals Foldness of Bipolar Fuzzy Sets and Its Application in BCK/BCI-Algebras

Mathematics ◽  
2019 ◽  
Vol 7 (11) ◽  
pp. 1036
Author(s):  
Young Bae Jun ◽  
Seok-Zun Song
Keyword(s):  
Information Processing ◽  
Fuzzy Sets ◽  
Fuzzy Set ◽  
Negative Information ◽  
Positive Information ◽  
Fuzzy Ideal ◽  
Recent Trends ◽  
Modern Information ◽  
Bipolar Fuzzy Sets

Recent trends in modern information processing have focused on polarizing information, and and bipolar fuzzy sets can be useful. Bipolar fuzzy sets are one of the important tools that can be used to distinguish between positive information and negative information. Positive information, for example, already observed or experienced, indicates what is guaranteed to be possible, and negative information indicates that it is impossible, prohibited, or certainly false. The purpose of this paper is to apply the bipolar fuzzy set to BCK/BCI-algebras. The notion of (translated) k-fold bipolar fuzzy sets is introduced, and its application in BCK/BCI-algebras is discussed. The concepts of k-fold bipolar fuzzy subalgebra and k-fold bipolar fuzzy ideal are introduced, and related properties are investigated. Characterizations of k-fold bipolar fuzzy subalgebra/ideal are considered, and relations between k-fold bipolar fuzzy subalgebra and k-fold bipolar fuzzy ideal are displayed. Extension of k-fold bipolar fuzzy subalgebra is discussed.

The mystery of communion in narcissism: The success-as-a-flaw effect

2014 ◽  
Vol 45 (4) ◽  
pp. 453-463 ◽  
Author(s):  
Krystyna Drat-Ruszczak ◽  
Róża Bazińska ◽  
Aleksandra Niemyjska
Keyword(s):  
Social Cognitive ◽  
Empirical Studies ◽  
Self Esteem ◽  
Negative Information ◽  
Aggressive Response ◽  
Clinical Approach ◽  
Positive Outcomes ◽  
Displaced Aggression ◽  
Positive Information ◽  
The Social

Abstract In the present paper we consider the specific relationship between communal and agentic functioning of narcissistic individuals. The study was aimed to test whether narcissist’s aggression is due to not only negative information about their agency but also positive information about their communion. Whereas the first effect is well- documented in empirical studies, the second effect has been revealed in our prior research. The results of the present study confirmed both effects: negative information about one’s agency increased aggressive tendencies (operationalized as a display of demeaning behavior) and decreased state self-esteem, while positive information about one’s communion resulted only in displaced aggression. The aggressive response to positive communal information is discussed as the success-as-aflaw effect, which we mean as inverse of the failure-as-an asset effect. According to the success-as-a-flaw effect, positive outcomes in the communal domain, considered by narcissists to be an evidence of low-status, are threatening for the grandiose self, based on the domain of agency. The social cognitive and clinical approach is employed to interpret these results.

scholarly journals Inhibitory control and its relationship to positivity biases in older adults

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Caoimhe McManus ◽  
David McGovern
Keyword(s):  
Older Adults ◽  
Recognition Memory ◽  
Inhibitory Control ◽  
Negative Information ◽  
Socioemotional Selectivity Theory ◽  
Positive Information ◽  
Active Suppression ◽  
Positivity Effect ◽  
Socioemotional Selectivity ◽  
Age Related

Older adults tend to focus on positive information over negative information; a phenomenon commonly referred to as the ‘positivity effect’. Socioemotional Selectivity Theory posits that this effect stems from age-related shifts in goals and relies heavily on the active suppression of negative information. The current study tested the hypothesis that inhibitory control is a key determinant of positivity biases in older adults using anti-saccade and recognition memory tasks. Results indicated a significant correlation between levels of inhibitory control and the positivity effect. These findings highlight the key role played by inhibitory control in determining positivity biases amongst older adults.

Semantic Splitting of Conditional Belief Bases

2021 ◽  
pp. 82-95
Author(s):  
Christoph Beierle ◽  
Jonas Haldimann ◽  
Gabriele Kern-Isberner
Keyword(s):  
Conditional Belief ◽  
Belief Bases

Rejection or Selection: Influence of Framing in Investment Decisions

2010 ◽  
Vol 106 (1) ◽  
pp. 247-254 ◽  
Author(s):  
Pi-Yueh Cheng ◽  
Wen-Bin Chiou
Keyword(s):  
Relevant Literature ◽  
Investment Decisions ◽  
Negative Information ◽  
Risky Choice ◽  
Decision Task ◽  
Positive Information ◽  
Screening Criteria ◽  
Decision Context ◽  
Probable Loss ◽  
Task Conditions

According to prospect theory, reflection effects result in preferences for risk-averse choices in gain situations and risk-seeking choices in loss situations. However, relevant literature in regard to decision making has suggested that positive information receives more weight in a selection task, whereas negative information receives more weight in a rejection task. The present study examined whether the nature of a decision task (selection vs rejection) would moderate the reflection effects. Undergraduates (47 men, 49 women; M age = 20.5 yr., SD = 1.1), selected according to specific screening criteria, participated in an experimental study. Typical reflection effects were observed in both selection and rejection task conditions. More importantly, negative information (i.e., the information about probable loss in risky choice of gain situations and the information about certain loss in cautious choice of loss situations) provided in the context of a rejection task received more weight and resulted in more frequent endorsements of the cautious choice in gain situations and of the risky choice in loss situations. Hence, the findings suggest that a decision context characterized by rejection may expand the reflection effects and thereby provide important information about situations in which investment decisions occur in a context characterized by rejection.

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