Structure, strain and AMS of the Uzunakhmat thrust sheet (Talas Range, Kyrgyz North Tian Shan)

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Anastasia Kushnareva ◽  
Artem Moskalenko ◽  
Alexander Pasenko
Keyword(s):  
Cross Section ◽  
Cross Sections ◽  
Structural Evolution ◽  
Middle Part ◽  
Tien Shan ◽  
Initial Shape ◽  
Thrust Sheet ◽  
Structural Style ◽  
Thrust Sheets ◽  
Tian Shan

<p>The Talas Range forms the northwest part of the Caledonides of the Northern Tian Shan. Based on differences in the structural style, metamorphism and sedimentary successions, three thrust sheets have been identified – the Uzunakhmat, Talas, and Kumyshtag thrust sheets. The Talas and Kumyshtag thrust sheets consist of Neoproterozoic-Ordovician terrigenous and carbonate rock units, whereas the Uzunakhmat thrust sheet consists of Neoproterozoic terrigenous rocks metamorphosed up to greenschist facies. The Uzunakhmat thrust sheet is separated from the Talas and Kumyshtag thrust sheets by the southwest-dipping Central Talas thrust (CTT). The dextral strike-slip Talas-Fergana Fault bounds the Uzunakhmat thrust sheet in the southwest. The main deformation events occurred in the Middle-Late Ordovician.</p><p>Structural and strain studies were done along profiles normal to the strike of folds and faults and located in the northwest and southeast parts of the Uzunakhmat thrust sheet. We also incorporate in our study structural profile in the central part of the Uzunakhmat thrust sheet, documented by Khudoley (1993) and Voytenko & Khudoley (2012).</p><p>The main strain indicators were detrital quartz grains in sandstones. Rf/φ and Normalized Fry methods were used to identify the amount of strain. Oblate ellipsoids predominate with Rxz values varying mostly from 1,6 to 2,4. Long axes of strain ellipsoids are sub-horizontal with the southeast to east-southeast trend. Similar trends have long axes of the anisotropy magnetic susceptibility ellipsoid being parallel to fold axes, cleavage-bedding intersection and mineral lineation as well as the trend of the major thrusts, including CTT.</p><p>The modern shape of the Uzunakhmat thrust sheet is similar to an elongated triangle, pinching out northwest and expanding southeast. Cross-section balancing corrected for the amount of strain shows along-strike decreasing of shortening in the southeast direction. Total shortening varies from 35% to 55% between sections located about 15 km from each other. Such significant variation in shortening corresponds to variation in structural style with much more tight folds and more numerous thrusts for cross-sections with a higher amount of shortening. However, the restored length of all cross-sections is quite similar pointing to the approximately rectangular initial shape of the Uzunakhmat thrust sheet. Our interpretation is that during the Caledonian tectonic events, the Uzunakhmat thrust sheet was displaced in the northwest direction with accompanied thrusting and folding of rock units within the thrust sheet. These deformations formed the modern shape of the thrust sheet in accordance with the amount of shortening detected by cross-section balancing. This interpretation also implies that modern erosion did not significantly affect shape of the Uzunakhmat thrust sheet formed after the Caledonian deformation.</p><p>Khudoley, A.K., 1993. Structural and strain analyses of the middle part of the Talassian Alatau ridge (Middle Asia, Kirgiystan). J. Struct. Geol. 6, 693–706.</p><p>Voytenko N.V., Khudoley A.K. Structural evolution of metamorphic rocks in the Talas Alatau, Tien Shan, Central Asia: Implication for early stages of the Talas-Ferghana Fault. // C. R. Geoscience. 2012. V. 344. P. 138–148.</p>

A discussion on the validation of structural interpretations based on the mechanics of sedimentary basins in the northwestern Mediterranean fold-and-thrust belts

2016 ◽  
Vol 187 (2) ◽  
pp. 83-104 ◽  
Author(s):  
Josselin Berthelon ◽  
William Sassi
Keyword(s):  
Cross Section ◽  
Cross Sections ◽  
Numerical Models ◽  
Structural Evolution ◽  
Sedimentary Basins ◽  
Structural Style ◽  
Thrust Belts ◽  
Fold And Thrust Belts ◽  
Thin Skin ◽  
Northwestern Mediterranean

Abstract Using the geologist’s interpretation of 6 published balanced cross-sections in the fold and thrust belts of the northwestern Mediterranean, a comparative analysis of the interpreted subsurface structural architecture is used to address the links between the structural style and the mechanics of fold and thrust emplacement. For each cross-section example, the geo-dataset and the methods used by the interpreters are different in quantity and quality. Here we have examined how useful is the content of information of each cross-section to constrain the structural evolution scenario. Each interpretation is examined according to considerations of the mechanics of sedimentary basin deformation and how uncertain is the extrapolation of fault trajectory at depth. It is shown that each case reveals a particular type of structural style: thin-skin or thick skin tectonics, fault-related folding, pre-existing fault pattern. The present structural analysis is used to determine for each cross-section the nature of the mechanical problem to address that will reduce uncertainty on the geologic scenario reconstruction. The proposed mechanical boundary conditions could serve to develop analog or numerical models that aim at testing the mechanical validity of the structural scenario of fold and thrust emplacement.

CROSS-SECTION BALANCING AND THERMOCHRONOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF THE MESOZOIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE EASTERN OTWAY BASIN

1997 ◽  
Vol 37 (1) ◽  
pp. 390 ◽  
Author(s):  
G.T. Cooper ◽  
K.C. Hill
Keyword(s):  
Cross Section ◽  
Early Cretaceous ◽  
Cross Sections ◽  
Seismic Data ◽  
Vitrinite Reflectance ◽  
Geometric Analysis ◽  
Structural Evolution ◽  
Geometric Constraints ◽  
Source Rocks ◽  
Structural Style

Recent advances in cross-section balancing software have simplified the application of basic geometric constraints to the analysis of basin development. Geometric analysis of field and seismic data allows the user to verify initial interpretations and also elucidates important information about the structural evolution of a basin. Principally, computerised balancing and restoration of cross-sections assists in constraining:the amount of crustal extension;trap geometries, particularly fault geometries through time;the geometry of key horizons at any time, revealing basin morphology and migration paths;the time and amount of maximum burial and hence hydrocarbon migration; andthe likely mechanisms involved in basin evolution. In turn, these parameters can be used to further assess hydrocarbon prospectivity by providing useful data for lithospheric modelling.This study utilises 2D cross-section balancing software (Geosec™) to decompact, balance and restore a series of regional onshore-offshore cross-sections based on both reflection seismic data in the Torquay Embayment and field mapping in the Otway Ranges. The thickness of eroded strata has been constrained by Apatite Fission Track and Vitrinite Reflectance analyses. The resulting section restoration suggests that the eastern Otway Basin experienced extension of 26 per cent in the Early Cretaceous and that the Otway Ranges were subjected to −8 per cent shortening during mid-Cretaceous inversion and −4 per cent shortening during Mio-Pliocene inversion.The structural style of the Otway Ranges and Torquay Embayment is typified by steep, relatively planar, en echelon, N and NE-dipping Early Cretaceous extension faults that were subsequently inverted and eroded during the Cenomanian and Mio-Pliocene. The structural style of the region shows strong similarities with oblique- rift analogue models suggesting that the extensional history of the region was strongly controlled by prevailing basement fabric.Lower Cretaceous source rocks in the eastern Otway Basin reached maximum maturity prior to mid-Cretaceous inversion with the exception of parts of the Torquay Embayment which may not have experienced significant uplift and erosion at this time. The lack of subsidence in the eastern Otway Basin prevented the deposition of significant amounts of Upper Cretaceous sediments which are proven reservoirs in the western Otway Basin and Gippsland Basin. Subsequent Tertiary burial was insufficient, in most regions, to allow the source rocks re-enter the oil generation window.

scholarly journals Structural controls on earthquake rupture revealed by the 2020 Mw 6.0 Jiashi earthquake (Kepingtag belt, SW Tian Shan, China)

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Siyu Wang ◽  
Edwin Nissen ◽  
Timothy Craig ◽  
Eric Bergman ◽  
Léa Pousse-Beltran
Keyword(s):  
Cross Sections ◽  
Surface Deformation ◽  
Coseismic Deformation ◽  
Southern Chinese ◽  
Pattern Length ◽  
Waveform Modelling ◽  
Thrust Sheets ◽  
Dip Angle ◽  
Seismic Reflection Profiles ◽  
Tian Shan

The Kepingtag (Kalpin) fold-and-thrust belt of the southern Chinese Tian Shan is characterized by active shortening and intense seismic activity. Geological cross-sections and seismic reflection profiles suggest thin-skinned, northward-dipping thrust sheets detached in an Upper Cambrian décollement. The January 19 2020 Mw 6.0 Jiashi earthquake provides an opportunity to investigate how coseismic deformation is accommodated in this structural setting. Coseismic surface deformation resolved with Sentinel-1 Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) is centered on the back limb of the frontal Kepingtag anticline. Elastic dislocation modelling suggests that the causative fault is located at ~7 km depth and dips ~7° northward, consistent with the inferred position of the décollement. The narrow slip pattern (length ~37 km but width only ~9 km) implies that there is a strong structural or lithological control on the rupture extent, with up-dip slip propagation possibly halted by an abrupt change in dip angle where the Kepingtag thrust is inferred to branch off the décollement. A depth discrepancy between mainshock slip constrained by InSAR and teleseismic waveform modelling (~7 km) and well-relocated aftershocks (~10-20 km) may imply that sediments above the décollement are velocity strengthening. We also relocate 148 regional events from 1977 to 2020 to characterize the broader distribution of seismicity across the Kepingtag belt. The calibrated hypocenters combined with previous teleseismic waveform models show that thrust and reverse faulting earthquakes cluster at relatively shallow depths of ~7-15 km but include abundant out-of-sequence events both north and south of the frontal Kepingtag fault.

scholarly journals Examining the tectono-stratigraphic architecture, structural geometry, and kinematic evolution of the Himalayan fold-thrust belt, Kumaun, northwest India

Lithosphere ◽  
2019 ◽  
Vol 11 (4) ◽  
pp. 414-435 ◽  
Author(s):  
Subhadip Mandal ◽  
Delores M. Robinson ◽  
Matthew J. Kohn ◽  
Subodha Khanal ◽  
Oindrila Das
Keyword(s):  
Cross Section ◽  
Structural Model ◽  
Kinematic Model ◽  
Thrust Belt ◽  
Main Central Thrust ◽  
Thrust Sheet ◽  
Balanced Cross Section ◽  
Kinematic Evolution ◽  
Thrust Sheets ◽  
Northwest India

Abstract Existing structural models of the Himalayan fold-thrust belt in Kumaun, northwest India, are based on a tectono-stratigraphy that assigns different stratigraphy to the Ramgarh, Berinag, Askot, and Munsiari thrusts and treats the thrusts as separate structures. We reassess the tectono-stratigraphy of Kumaun, based on new and existing U-Pb zircon ages and whole-rock Nd isotopic values, and present a new structural model and deformation history through kinematic analysis using a balanced cross section. This study reveals that the rocks that currently crop out as the Ramgarh, Berinag, Askot, and Munsiari thrust sheets were part of the same, once laterally continuous stratigraphic unit, consisting of Lesser Himalayan Paleoproterozoic granitoids (ca. 1850 Ma) and metasedimentary rocks. These Paleoproterozoic rocks were shortened and duplexed into the Ramgarh-Munsiari thrust sheet and other Paleoproterozoic thrust sheets during Himalayan orogenesis. Our structural model contains a hinterland-dipping duplex that accommodates ∼541–575 km or 79%–80% of minimum shortening between the Main Frontal thrust and South Tibetan Detachment system. By adding in minimum shortening from the Tethyan Himalaya, we estimate a total minimum shortening of ∼674–751 km in the Himalayan fold-thrust belt. The Ramgarh-Munsiari thrust sheet and the Lesser Himalayan duplex are breached by erosion, separating the Paleoproterozoic Lesser Himalayan rocks of the Ramgarh-Munsiari thrust into the isolated, synclinal Almora, Askot, and Chiplakot klippen, where folding of the Ramgarh-Munsiari thrust sheet by the Lesser Himalayan duplex controls preservation of these klippen. The Ramgarh-Munsiari thrust carries the Paleoproterozoic Lesser Himalayan rocks ∼120 km southward from the footwall of the Main Central thrust and exposed them in the hanging wall of the Main Boundary thrust. Our kinematic model demonstrates that propagation of the thrust belt occurred from north to south with minor out-of-sequence thrusting and is consistent with a critical taper model for growth of the Himalayan thrust belt, following emplacement of midcrustal Greater Himalayan rocks. Our revised stratigraphy-based balanced cross section contains ∼120–200 km greater shortening than previously estimated through the Greater, Lesser, and Subhimalayan rocks.

Restoration of the Caledonian Baltoscandian margin from balanced cross-sections: the problem of excess continental crust

1987 ◽  
Vol 78 (3) ◽  
pp. 197-217 ◽  
Author(s):  
R. A. Gayer ◽  
A. H. N. Rice ◽  
D. Roberts ◽  
C. Townsend ◽  
A. Welbon
Keyword(s):  
Continental Crust ◽  
Cross Section ◽  
Continental Margin ◽  
Cross Sections ◽  
Branch Line ◽  
Norwegian Coast ◽  
Thrust Sheets ◽  
Thrust System ◽  
Basement Ridge ◽  
The Baltic

ABSTRACTConsideration of six balanced cross-sections through parts of the Finnmark Caledonides, N Norway indicates that shortening varies between 25% and 75%. A restored long cross-section across the width of the orogen, constructed with the aid of a branch line map, demonstrates a foreland propagating thrust system, with earlier formed more internal metamorphic nappes thrust SE 330 km under ductile conditions and then carried piggyback ESE a further 296 km on later brittle thrust sheets. Total shortening is 78·7% with a translation of the most internal thrust sheet of 626 km.The restored section suggests that: (1) the rate of propagation of deformation from hinterland to foreland is c. 2·27 cm y−1; (2) incorporation of basement into the nappes resulted from inversion of extensional faults formed during Iapetus rifting; (3) during rifting a Finnmark basement ridge separated a 220 km wide southeasterly Gaissa basin from the passive Iapetus continental margin which was at least 423 km wide; (4) the Finnmark Caledonides resulted from a continent-microcontinent collision which obducted continental crust at least 600 km across the Baltic margin; and (5) the Caledonian Baltoscandian margin prior to Iapetus suturing extended at least 400 km W of the Norwegian coast. On a Bullard reconstruction this overlaps with Laurentian rocks in Greenland. The excess continental crust is accounted for by shortening of the Baltoscandian margin during collision.

scholarly journals The geological framework for Hvideklint, south-east Denmark, using glaciodynamic sequence stratigraphy

2021 ◽  
Vol 47 ◽  
Author(s):  
Stig A. Schack Pedersen ◽  
Peter Gravesen
Keyword(s):  
Sea Level ◽  
Sequence Stratigraphy ◽  
Cross Section ◽  
Cross Sections ◽  
Drill Hole ◽  
Balanced Cross Section ◽  
Geological Cross Section ◽  
Thrust Sheets ◽  
Practical Model ◽  
Complex Architecture

Glaciodynamic sequence stratigraphy provides a practical model for grouping and classifying complex geological data to aid interpretation of past climatic and environmental development in Quaternary successions. The principles of glaciodynamic sequence stratigraphy are applied here to summarise the complex glacial geological framework of Hvideklint on the island of Møn, south-east Denmark. The framework of the superimposed deformed Hvideklint is presented in a reconstructed geological cross-section of Hvideklint. For the construction of the architecture of the glaciotectonic complex, the interpretation of structures below sea level was based on a detailed new survey of the cliff section combined with construction of successive approximation balanced cross-sections. The new description is supported by drill hole data from the Jupiter database. Where chalk is not glaciotectonically deformed, the constructed depth to the top-chalk-surface is generally located about 30 m below sea level. In Hvideklint, thrust sheets with chalk are exposed 20 m above sea level, and the balanced cross-section constructions indicate that the décollement surface for a Hvideklint glaciotectonic complex is located about 80 m below sea level. Between the décollement level and the top of the complex, two or more thrust-fault flat-levels and connecting ramps add to the complex architecture of Hvideklint.

Rift evolution and structural style in the Orphan Basin: results from regional structural restorations and crustal area balancing 

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Adam J. Cawood ◽  
David A. Ferrill ◽  
Alan P. Morris ◽  
David Norris ◽  
David McCallum ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Cross Sections ◽  
Seismic Data ◽  
Large Scale ◽  
Structural Evolution ◽  
Strike Slip ◽  
Detachment Faults ◽  
The North ◽  
Structural Style ◽  
Complex Structural ◽  
Structural Configurations

<p>The Orphan Basin on the eastern edge of the Newfoundland continental margin formed as a Mesozoic rift basin prior to continental breakup associated with the opening of the North Atlantic. Few exploration wells exist in the basin, and until recently regional interpretations have been based on sparse seismic data coverage - because of this the structural evolution of the Orphan Basin has historically not been well understood. Key uncertainties include the timing and amount of rift-related extension, dominant extension directions, and the structural styles that accommodated progressive rift development in the basin.     </p><p>Interpretation of newly acquired modern broadband seismic data and structural restoration of three regional, WNW-ESE oriented cross-sections across the Orphan Basin and Flemish Cap provide new insights into rift evolution and structural style in the area. Our results show that major extension in the basin occurred between 167 Ma and 135 Ma, with most extension occurring prior to 151 Ma. We show that extension after 135 Ma largely occurred east of Flemish Cap due to a shift in the locus of rifting from the Orphan Basin to east of Flemish Cap. We find no evidence for discrete rifting events in the Orphan Basin, as has been suggested by other authors.  Kinematic restoration and associated heave measurements for the Orphan Basin show that extension was both widespread and relatively evenly distributed across the basin from Middle-Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous.</p><p>We provide evidence for more widespread deposition of Jurassic strata throughout the Orphan Basin than previously interpreted, and show that Jurassic deposition was controlled by the occurrence and displacement of crustal-scale extensional detachment faults.  Structure in the three regional cross sections is dominated by large-scale, shallowly dipping extensional detachment faults. These faults mainly dip to the northwest and control the geometry and position of extensional basins – grabens and half-grabens – which occur at a range of scales. Stacked detachment surfaces, hyperextension, and attenuation of the crust are observed in central and eastern parts of the Orphan Basin. Zones of extreme crustal attenuation (to ca. 3.7 km) are interpreted to be coincident with large-displacement (up to 60 km) low-angle detachments. Results from crustal area balancing suggest that up to 41% of extension is not recognized through structural seismic interpretation, which we attribute to subseismic-scale ductile and brittle deformation, and uncertainties in the identification of detachment surfaces or complex structural configurations (e.g., overprinting of early extensional deformation).</p><p>Rifting style in the central, northern, and eastern parts of the Orphan Basin is dominated by low-angle detachment faulting with maximum extension perpendicular to the incipient rift axis. In contrast, structural geometries in the southwestern part of the basin are suggestive of transtensional deformation, and interplay of normal and strike-slip faulting.  Results from map-based interpretation show that strike-slip faults within this transtensional zone are associated with displacement transfer between half-grabens of opposing polarity, rather than regional strike-slip displacement.  These structures are interpreted as contemporaneous and kinematically linked to displacement along low-angle detachment surfaces elsewhere, and are not attributed to distinct episodes of oblique extension.       </p>

Serial gravity-constrained cross-sections in the Central Pyrenees validating its structural style

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ruth Soto ◽  
Pilar Clariana ◽  
Conxi Ayala ◽  
Antonio M. Casas-Sainz ◽  
Teresa Román-Berdiel ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Cross Sections ◽  
Gravity Data ◽  
Bouguer Anomaly ◽  
Leading Edge ◽  
Gravity Modelling ◽  
Rock Types ◽  
Structural Style ◽  
Thrust Sheets ◽  
Structural Architecture ◽  
Central Pyrenees

<p>Cenozoic contractional deformation in the Central Pyrenees generated several basement thrust sheets involving Paleozoic rocks and decoupled Mesozoic and Cenozoic cover units detached on the main décollement level, the Triassic evaporites. The overall geometry and structural architecture of the chain have already been established based on numerous geological and geophysical data obtained during several decades. This work aims to validate the overall accepted geometry of the Central part of the chain by the construction of six serial cross-sections constrained by gravity data and 2.5D gravity modelling. The study area comprises the southern half of the Axial Zone between La Maladeta and Andorra-Mont Louis granites and its southern leading edge as well as the northernmost part of the South-Pyrenean Zone.</p><p>New gravity data were acquired and combined with previous existing databases to obtain Bouguer anomaly and residual anomaly maps of the study area. Six serial gravity-constrained cross sections have been built using available geological maps, previous published works, new geological and gravity data and 2.5D gravity modelling. Density values for gravity modelling were derived from 231 laboratory measurements of rock samples collected in the field from non-weathered outcrops that include all rock types outcropping in the study area. The residual anomaly map shows a good correlation between basement thrust sheets and gravity highs whereas negative anomalies seem to correspond to (1) Mesozoic basins, (2) Triassic evaporites and (3) Late Variscan igneous bodies. The 2.5D gravity modelling along the six cross sections highlights: (i) strong along-strike variations on the gravity signal due to lateral differences of the surficial and subsurface occurrence of Triassic evaporites, (ii) different geometry at depth of the Late Variscan igneous bodies outcropping in the study area and (iii) geometric lateral variations of the basement thrust sheets and their relationship with the Mesozoic-Cenozoic units.</p>

Structural Cross-Section and Tectonic Model of the Southeastern Canadian Cordillera

1973 ◽  
Vol 10 (11) ◽  
pp. 1607-1620 ◽  
Author(s):  
R. B. Campbell
Keyword(s):  
Cross Sections ◽  
Rocky Mountains ◽  
Structural Evolution ◽  
Crystalline Basement ◽  
Canadian Rocky Mountains ◽  
Vertical Movements ◽  
Tectonic Model ◽  
Columbia Mountains ◽  
Thrust Sheets ◽  
Flanking Regions

Recent models for the structural evolution of the southern Canadian Rocky Mountains have emphasized 'thin-skinned' tectonics whereby thrust sheets piled up from west to east above a décollement on a passive crystalline basement. The concept implies that the more westernly Omineca Crystalline Belt, including granitoid gneiss believed to be basement more than 800 m.y. old, is allochthonous and has moved eastward by at least the amount of shortening in the thrust-faulted zone.Mildly deformed and metamorphosed stratified rocks in the northern Columbia Mountains (central Omineca Crystalline Belt) and adjacent Rocky Mountains permit construction of well-controlled structural and restored stratigraphic cross-sections, which show that the Crystalline Belt and Main Ranges were relatively uniformly uplifted by about 35 000 ft (11 km) whereas flanking regions experienced minor uplifts. Combined with other evidence this indicates that 'thick-skinned' tectonics with vertical movements of the entire crust affected the Omineca Crystalline Belt and the Main Ranges; major horizontal movements seem unnecessary. The Omineca Crystalline Belt is regarded as an autochthon in which the basement was extensively deformed and it is suggested that basement is deformed beneath the Main Ranges. The zone of thrusting and décollement above the basement is restricted to the Front Ranges and Foothills and may result from westward underthrusting of the craton.

scholarly journals Fold–thrust structures – where have all the buckles gone?

2019 ◽  
Vol 487 (1) ◽  
pp. 21-44 ◽  
Author(s):  
Robert W. H. Butler ◽  
Clare E. Bond ◽  
Mark A. Cooper ◽  
Hannah Watkins
Keyword(s):  
Cross Section ◽  
Cross Sections ◽  
Narrow Range ◽  
Structural Evolution ◽  
Fault Propagation ◽  
The Past ◽  
Thrust Belts ◽  
Fault Bend ◽  
Shear Failures ◽  
Orogenic Belts

AbstractThe margins to evolving orogenic belts experience near layer-parallel contraction that can evolve into fold–thrust belts. Developing cross-section-scale understanding of these systems necessitates structural interpretation. However, over the past several decades a false distinction has arisen between some forms of so-called fault-related folding and buckle folding. We investigate the origins of this confusion and seek to develop unified approaches for interpreting fold–thrust belts that incorporate deformation arising both from the amplification of buckling instabilities and from localized shear failures (thrust faults). Discussions are illustrated using short case studies from the Bolivian Subandean chain (Incahuasi anticline), the Canadian Cordillera (Livingstone anticlinorium) and Subalpine chains of France and Switzerland. Only fault–bend folding is purely fault-related and other forms, such as fault-propagation and detachment folds, all involve components of buckling. Better integration of understanding of buckling processes, the geometries and structural evolutions that they generate may help to understand how deformation is distributed within fold–thrust belts. It may also reduce the current biases engendered by adopting a narrow range of idealized geometries when constructing cross-sections and evaluating structural evolution in these systems.

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