Salmonella and the Immune System

Resistance Mechanisms ◽

Personal Hygiene ◽

Disease Symptoms ◽

The human body has many mechanisms to resist invaders like pathogenic bacteria to avoid harm according to the living creature’s law “survival for the best”. On the opposite; Salmonella as pathogenic bacteria have many weapons that they utilize to invade the human body. The resistance mechanisms expressed by the human body are called immunity which represented by the immune system that has many different types of resistance processes, either specific (adaptive immune response) or non-specific (Innate Immune Response) against certain pathogenic invaders. As far as these processes are strong they will be enough to avoid infections occurrence, otherwise, the human body will get infected with Salmonella, be ill, show the disease symptoms, transmit the disease to others, and may become a carrier for the pathogen according to many circumstances. Prevention is still stood the most effective way to avoid getting infected with Salmonella by personal hygiene or suitable vaccination if available.

Fetal Lymphoid Organ Immune Responses to Transient and Persistent Infection with Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus

Viruses ◽

10.3390/v12080816 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 12 (8) ◽

pp. 816 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

Katie J. Knapek ◽

Hanah M. Georges ◽

Hana Van Campen ◽

Jeanette V. Bishop ◽

Helle Bielefeldt-Ohmann ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Immune Response ◽

Immune System ◽

Innate Immune Response ◽

Innate Immune ◽

Bovine Viral Diarrhea ◽

Diarrhea Virus ◽

Viral Diarrhea ◽

Adaptive Immune ◽

Viral Diarrhea Virus

Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus (BVDV) fetal infections occur in two forms; persistent infection (PI) or transient infection (TI), depending on what stage of gestation the fetus is infected. Examination of lymphoid organs from both PI and TI fetuses reveals drastically different fetal responses, dependent upon the developmental stage of the fetal immune system. Total RNA was extracted from the thymuses and spleens of uninfected control, PI, and TI fetuses collected on day 190 of gestation to test the hypothesis that BVDV infection impairs the innate and adaptive immune response in the fetal thymus and spleen of both infection types. Transcripts of genes representing the innate immune response and adaptive immune response genes were assayed by Reverse Transcription quatitative PCR (RT-qPCR) (2−ΔΔCq; fold change). Genes of the innate immune response, interferon (IFN) inducible genes, antigen presentation to lymphocytes, and activation of B cells were downregulated in day 190 fetal PI thymuses compared to controls. In contrast, innate immune response genes were upregulated in TI fetal thymuses compared to controls and tended to be upregulated in TI fetal spleens. Genes associated with the innate immune system were not different in PI fetal spleens; however, adaptive immune system genes were downregulated, indicating that PI fetal BVDV infection has profound inhibitory effects on the expression of genes involved in the innate and adaptive immune response. The downregulation of these genes in lymphocytes and antigen-presenting cells in the developing thymus and spleen may explain the incomplete clearance of BVDV and the persistence of the virus in PI animals while the upregulation of the TI innate immune response indicates a more mature immune system, able to clear the virus.

Plant Phenolics and Lectins as Vaccine Adjuvants

Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology ◽

10.2174/1389201020666190716110705 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 20 (15) ◽

pp. 1236-1243 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

Hernández-Ramos Reyna-Margarita ◽

Castillo-Maldonado Irais ◽

Rivera-Guillén Mario-Alberto ◽

Ramírez-Moreno Agustina ◽

Serrano-Gallardo Luis-Benjamín ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Immune Response ◽

Immune System ◽

Innate Immune Response ◽

The Body ◽

Innate Immune ◽

Vaccine Adjuvants ◽

Plant Phenolics ◽

Adaptive Immune ◽

Foreign Substance

Background: The immune system is responsible for providing protection to the body against foreign substances. The immune system divides into two types of immune responses to study its mechanisms of protection: 1) Innate and 2) Adaptive. The innate immune response represents the first protective barrier of the organism that also works as a regulator of the adaptive immune response, if evaded the mechanisms of the innate immune response by the foreign substance the adaptive immune response takes action with the consequent antigen neutralization or elimination. The adaptive immune response objective is developing a specific humoral response that consists in the production of soluble proteins known as antibodies capable of specifically recognizing the foreign agent; such protective mechanism is induced artificially through an immunization or vaccination. Unfortunately, the immunogenicity of the antigens is an intrinsic characteristic of the same antigen dependent on several factors. Conclusion: Vaccine adjuvants are chemical substances of very varied structure that seek to improve the immunogenicity of antigens. The main four types of adjuvants under investigation are the following: 1) Oil emulsions with an antigen in solution, 2) Pattern recognition receptors activating molecules, 3) Inflammatory stimulatory molecules or activators of the inflammasome complex, and 4) Cytokines. However, this paper addresses the biological plausibility of two phytochemical compounds as vaccine adjuvants: 5) Lectins, and 6) Plant phenolics whose characteristics, mechanisms of action and disadvantages are addressed. Finally, the immunological usefulness of these molecules is discussed through immunological data to estimate effects of plant phenolics and lectins as vaccine adjuvants, and current studies that have implanted these molecules as vaccine adjuvants, demonstrating the results of this immunization.

Adaptive immunity

Oxford Textbook of Medicine ◽

10.1093/med/9780198746690.003.0040 ◽

2020 ◽

pp. 325-336

Author(s):

Paul Klenerman

Keyword(s):

Immune Response ◽

Immune Responses ◽

Adaptive Immunity ◽

Innate Immune Response ◽

Molecular Basis ◽

Antigenic Specificity ◽

Adaptive Immune Responses ◽

Research Attention ◽

The adaptive immune response is distinguished from the innate immune response by two main features: its capacity to respond flexibly to new, previously unencountered antigens (antigenic specificity), and its enhanced capacity to respond to previously encountered antigens (immunological memory). These two features have provided the focus for much research attention, from the time of Jenner, through Pasteur onwards. Historically, innate and adaptive immune responses have often been treated as separate, with the latter being considered more ‘advanced’ because of its flexibility. It is now clear this not the case, and in recent years the molecular basis for these phenomena has become much better understood.

Salmonella escapes adaptive immune response via SIRT2 mediated modulation of innate immune response in dendritic cells

PLoS Pathogens ◽

10.1371/journal.ppat.1007437 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 14 (11) ◽

pp. e1007437 ◽

Cited By ~ 7

Author(s):

Mayuri Gogoi ◽

Kasturi Chandra ◽

Mohsen Sarikhani ◽

Ramya Ramani ◽

Nagalingam Ravi Sundaresan ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Immune Response ◽

Dendritic Cells ◽

Innate Immune Response ◽

Innate Immune ◽

The Innate Immune Response to Adjuvants Dictates the Adaptive Immune Response to Autoantigens

Journal of Neuropathology & Experimental Neurology ◽

10.1097/nen.0b013e31817713cc ◽

2008 ◽

Vol 67 (6) ◽

pp. 543-554 ◽

Cited By ~ 5

Author(s):

Maria A. Staykova ◽

David Liñares ◽

Susan A. Fordham ◽

Judith T. Paridaen ◽

David O. Willenborg

Keyword(s):

Immune Response ◽

Innate Immune Response ◽

Innate Immune ◽

Insights into Innate Immune Response Against SARS-CoV-2 Infection

Revista Romana de Medicina de Laborator ◽

10.2478/rrlm-2021-0022 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 29 (3) ◽

pp. 255-269

Author(s):

Adina Huțanu ◽

Anca Meda Georgescu ◽

Akos Vince Andrejkovits ◽

William Au ◽

Minodora Dobreanu

Keyword(s):

Immune Response ◽

Immune System ◽

Innate Immune Response ◽

Innate Immune System ◽

Time Course ◽

Innate Immune ◽

Interferon Response ◽

Humoral Factors ◽

Key Steps

Abstract The innate immune system is mandatory for the activation of antiviral host defense and eradication of the infection. In this regard, dendritic cells, natural killer cells, macrophages, neutrophils representing the cellular component, and cytokines, interferons, complement or Toll-Like Receptors, representing the mediators of unspecific response act together for both activation of the adaptive immune response and viral clearance. Of great importance is the proper functioning of the innate immune response from the very beginning. For instance, in the early stages of viral infection, the defective interferon response leads to uncontrolled viral replication and pathogen evasion, while hypersecretion during the later stages of infection generates hyperinflammation. This cascade activation of systemic inflammation culminates with cytokine storm syndrome and hypercoagulability state, due to a close interconnection between them. Thus an unbalanced reaction, either under- or over- stimulation of the innate immune system will lead to an uncoordinated response and unfavorable disease outcomes. Since both cellular and humoral factors are involved in the time-course of the innate immune response, in this review we aimed to address their gradual involvement in the antiviral response with emphasis on key steps in SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Proteomic and metabolomic signatures associated with the immune response in healthy individuals immunized with an inactivated SARS-CoV-2 vaccine

10.1101/2021.07.21.21260959 ◽

2021 ◽

Author(s):

Yi Wang ◽

Xiaoxia Wang ◽

Laurence Don Wai Luu ◽

Shaojin Chen ◽

Jin Fu ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Immune Response ◽

Immune System ◽

Systems Biology ◽

Complement Activation ◽

Metabolic Pathways ◽

Molecular Mechanisms ◽

Humoral Response ◽

Tca Cycle ◽

CoronaVac (Sinovac), an inactivated vaccine for SARS-CoV-2, has been widely used for immunization. However, analysis of the underlying molecular mechanisms driving CoronaVac-induced immunity is still limited. Here, we applied a systems biology approach to understand the mechanisms behind the adaptive immune response to CoronaVac in a cohort of 50 volunteers immunized with 2 doses of CoronaVac. Vaccination with CoronaVac led to an integrated immune response that included several effector arms of the adaptive immune system including specific IgM/IgG, humoral response and other immune response, as well as the innate immune system as shown by complement activation. Metabolites associated with immunity were also identified implicating the role of metabolites in the humoral response, complement activation and other immune response. Networks associated with the TCA cycle and amino acids metabolic pathways, such as phenylalanine metabolism, phenylalanine, tyrosine and tryptophan biosynthesis, and glycine, serine and threonine metabolism were tightly coupled with immunity. Critically, we constructed a multifactorial response network (MRN) to analyze the underlying interactions and compared the signatures affected by CoronaVac immunization and SARS-CoV-2 infection to further identify immune signatures and related metabolic pathways altered by CoronaVac immunization. These results suggest that protective immunity against SARS-CoV-2 can be achieved via multiple mechanisms and highlights the utility of a systems biology approach in defining molecular correlates of protection to vaccination.

Exosomes Recovered From the Plasma of COVID-19 Patients Expose SARS-CoV-2 Spike-Derived Fragments and Contribute to the Adaptive Immune Response

Frontiers in Immunology ◽

10.3389/fimmu.2021.785941 ◽

2022 ◽

Vol 12 ◽

Author(s):

Elisa Pesce ◽

Nicola Manfrini ◽

Chiara Cordiglieri ◽

Spartaco Santi ◽

Alessandra Bandera ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Infectious Disease ◽

Mass Spectrometry ◽

Immune Response ◽

Immune System ◽

Active Role ◽

Extracellular Vesicle ◽

Pathological State ◽

Cell Responses ◽

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is an infectious disease caused by beta-coronavirus severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) that has rapidly spread across the globe starting from February 2020. It is well established that during viral infection, extracellular vesicles become delivery/presenting vectors of viral material. However, studies regarding extracellular vesicle function in COVID-19 pathology are still scanty. Here, we performed a comparative study on exosomes recovered from the plasma of either MILD or SEVERE COVID-19 patients. We show that although both types of vesicles efficiently display SARS-CoV-2 spike-derived peptides and carry immunomodulatory molecules, only those of MILD patients are capable of efficiently regulating antigen-specific CD4+ T-cell responses. Accordingly, by mass spectrometry, we show that the proteome of exosomes of MILD patients correlates with a proper functioning of the immune system, while that of SEVERE patients is associated with increased and chronic inflammation. Overall, we show that exosomes recovered from the plasma of COVID-19 patients possess SARS-CoV-2-derived protein material, have an active role in enhancing the immune response, and possess a cargo that reflects the pathological state of patients in the acute phase of the disease.

Snippets of virus integrated into human genome suggests possibility of CRISPR-like adaptive immune system in human cells

10.7287/peerj.preprints.27675v1 ◽

2019 ◽

Author(s):

Wenfa Ng

Keyword(s):

Immune Response ◽

Immune System ◽

Human Genome ◽

Adaptive Immune System ◽

Human Cells ◽

Rna Seq ◽

Viral Dna ◽

Adaptive Immune ◽

Foreign Dna

Snippets of virus that infect humans have been shown to be incorporated into the human genome. Could such virus snippets provide a form of adaptive immunity similar to that offered by CRISPR to bacterial cells? To answer the question, RNA-seq could be used to provide a broad view of the RNA transcribed from DNA in the genome. Using known genome sequence of viruses that infect humans as template, reads obtained from RNA-seq would be profiled for virus snippets integrated into human genome and subsequently transcribed as part of an adaptive immune system. Subsequently, viruses corresponding to the virus snippets in human genome would be used to infect human cell lines to obtain direct evidence of how virus snippets mediate an adaptive immune response at the cellular level. Specifically, successful defence of the cell by virus snippets triggering an adaptive immune response would manifest as viable cells compared to lysed cells unable to mount an immune response. Following demonstration of cell viability under viral challenge, in vitro biochemical assays using cell lysate would interrogate the specific proteins and enzymes that mediate possible cutting of the foreign DNA or RNA. To this end, beads immobilized with virus snippets would serve as bait for binding to complementary viral DNA or RNA as well as potential endogenous endonuclease protein. Following precipitation and recovery of beads, possible endonuclease that bind to both viral DNA or RNA and virus snippets immobilized on beads would be isolated through gel electrophoresis and subsequently purified. Purified endonuclease would be assayed for activity against a variety of nucleic acids (both DNA and RNA) from various sources with and without added virus snippets. This provides important information on substrate range and specificity of the potential endonuclease. Amino acid sequencing of the purified endonuclease would help downstream bioinformatic search for candidate protein in the human genome. Finally, cryo-electron microscopy could help determine the structure of the endonuclease in complex with viral nucleic acids and virus snippets. Such structural information would provide more insights into mechanistic details describing the binding and cleavage of viral DNA or RNA in a CRISPR-like adaptive immune response in human cells. Overall, tantalizing clues have emerged that a CRISPR-like adaptive immune response may exist in human cells for defending against viral attack. Combination of cell biological, biochemical and structural tools could lend insights into the potential endonuclease that mediate double strand break of foreign DNA or RNA using virus snippets transcribed from the human genome as guide RNA. If demonstrated to be true for a variety of human viruses across different cell lines, the newly discovered viral defence mechanism in human cells hold important implications for understanding the adoption and evolution of CRISPR in eukaryotic cells.