Parasitized or non-parasitized, why? A study of factors influencing tick burden in roe deer neonates.

Ixodes ricinus , the most common species of tick in Europe, is known to transmit major pathogens to animals and humans such as Babesia spp. or Borrelia spp.. Its abundance and distribution have been steadily increasing in Europe during recent decades, due to global environmental changes. Indeed, as ticks spend most of their life in the environment, their activity and life cycle are highly dependent on environmental conditions, and therefore on climate or habitat changes. Simultaneously, wild ungulates have expanded their range and increased dramatically in abundance worldwide, in particular roe deer ( Capreolus capreolus ), have allowed tick populations to grow and spread. Currently, tick infestation on newborn wild ungulates is poorly documented. However, newborn ungulates are considered more sensitive to tick bites and pathogen transmission because of their immature immune system. Thus, improving knowledge about the factors influencing tick infestation on newborns is essential to better understand their health risks. This study was conducted at Trois-Fontaines forest, Champagne-Ardenne, France (1992-2018). Based on a long-term monitoring of roe deer fawns, we used a novel Bayesian model of the infestation of fawns to identify which biotic or abiotic factors are likely to modify the level of infestation by ticks of 965 fawns over time. We show that tick burden increased faster during the first days of life of the fawns and became constant when fawns were 5 days old and more, which could be explained by the depletion of questing ticks or the turnover of ticks feeding on fawns. Moreover, the humidity, which favors tick activity, was weakly positively related to the tick burden. Our results demonstrate that tick infestation was highly variable among years, particularly between 2000 and 2009. We hypothesize that this results from a modification of habitat caused by hurricane Lothar.

Gastrointestinal Helminth Parasites of Wild Ungulates In Hirpora Wildlife Sanctuary, Kashmir, India

Parasitic infection represents an emerging threat to wild ungulates and a challenge to their management. Although a lot of work has been carried out on helminth parasitic infestation of domestic ungulates of Kashmir but the data pertaining to this aspect of wild ungulates has being ignored. The study on gastrointestinal helminth parasitic infestation of wild ungulates was carried out during post livestock grazing period (November to May) of 2018/2019 in Hirpora Wildlife sanctuary (HWLS) to fill the gap in the existing literature. During the study fresh faecal samples of musk deer Moschus sp.(n=44) and markhor Capra falconeri (n=41)were collected and examined qualitatively and quantitatively for gastrointestinal helminth parasites. A total of seven helminth parasites were recorded which are arranged in the descending order of their overall prevalence as Haemonchus spp. (44.70%),Nematodirus spp. (40%), Trichuris spp. (37.64%), Strongyloides spp. (34.11%)Trichostrongylus spp. (28.23%),Monieziaspp. (23.52%) and Fasciola spp. (20%). The mean EPG (eggs per gram) of different parasites showed a considerable variation in both the wild ungulates. The highest mean EPGwas that of Haemonchus spp. and the lowest mean EPG was that of Fasciola spp. in both hosts. A statistically significant difference was observed in the mean EPG of different parasites among two wild hosts (t=3.606, p=0.01).

Characterization and management of interaction risks between livestock and wild ungulates on outdoor pig farms in Spain

Background To control the transmission of relevant shared diseases, such as animal tuberculosis (TB) and African swine fever (ASF), it is essential to reduce the risk of interaction between livestock and wild ungulates. In Eastern and Central Europe, the current spread of ASF virus affecting wild boar and domestic pigs (especially those raised outdoors and/or in backyards) has devastated the pig sector in affected regions and is seriously threatening other exporting countries. Here, we evaluated the risk of wildlife-livestock interactions on 45 outdoor pig farms in Spain, the second largest pork producer in the EU and then proposed biosecurity-related actions. An integrated, systematic wildlife risk mitigation protocol based on interviews, questionnaires and field audits was developed and applied on each farm. Results Most of the interaction risk points were associated with water sources (84.2%; 701/832), mainly springs and ponds, which accounted for almost all the specific points with high or very high risk scores. The risk of interaction at feeding points (6.9%; 57/832) and those associated with facilities for livestock and/or game management (8.9%; 74/832) were rated as low and very low risk, respectively. Wild boar were present and hunted on 69% of the farms. Supplementary feeding for wild ungulate species (mainly wild boar) was provided on almost half (48.9%; 22/45) the surveyed farms. Risk mitigation actions were categorised to target water access, waterers, food, other livestock species, grazing, wildlife, and offal disposal. Of the total number of actions (n = 2016), 82.7% were identified as priority actions while 17.3% represented alternative options which were identified less cost-effective. On average, 37.1 (median: 32; range 14–113) action proposals per study farm were made and 2.0 (median: 1; range 0–4) per risk point. The mean estimated cost of implementing the proposed priority actions was 14,780 €/farm (25.7 €/hectare and 799.4 €/risk point). Conclusions This study expands the knowledge of interaction risks between domestic pigs and wild ungulates in outdoor pig farming systems and highlights the importance of considering local risks and management practices when designing and prioritising adapted wildlife risk mitigation and biosecurity actions. This practical and feasible protocol developed for Mediterranean ecosystems is easily transferable to professionals and can be adapted to extensive (outdoor) production or epidemiological systems in other European regions.

Expanding or shrinking? range shifts in wild ungulates under climate change in Pamir-Karakoram mountains, Pakistan

Climate change is expected to impact a large number of organisms in many ecosystems, including several threatened mammals. A better understanding of climate impacts on species can make conservation efforts more effective. The Himalayan ibex (Capra ibex sibirica) and blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) are economically important wild ungulates in northern Pakistan because they are sought-after hunting trophies. However, both species are threatened due to several human-induced factors, and these factors are expected to aggravate under changing climate in the High Himalayas. In this study, we investigated populations of ibex and blue sheep in the Pamir-Karakoram mountains in order to (i) update and validate their geographical distributions through empirical data; (ii) understand range shifts under climate change scenarios; and (iii) predict future habitats to aid long-term conservation planning. Presence records of target species were collected through camera trapping and sightings in the field. We constructed Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) model on presence record and six key climatic variables to predict the current and future distributions of ibex and blue sheep. Two representative concentration pathways (4.5 and 8.5) and two-time projections (2050 and 2070) were used for future range predictions. Our results indicated that ca. 37% and 9% of the total study area (Gilgit-Baltistan) was suitable under current climatic conditions for Himalayan ibex and blue sheep, respectively. Annual mean precipitation was a key determinant of suitable habitat for both ungulate species. Under changing climate scenarios, both species will lose a significant part of their habitats, particularly in the Himalayan and Hindu Kush ranges. The Pamir-Karakoram ranges will serve as climate refugia for both species. This area shall remain focus of future conservation efforts to protect Pakistan’s mountain ungulates.

The value of transhumance for biodiversity conservation: Vulture foraging in relation to livestock movements

In recent decades, intensive techniques of livestock raising have flourished, which has largely replaced traditional farming practices such as transhumance. These changes may have affected scavengers’ behaviour and ecology, as extensive livestock is a key source of carrion. This study evaluates the spatial responses of avian scavengers to the seasonal movements of transhumant herds in south-eastern Spain. We surveyed the abundance of avian scavengers and ungulates, and analysed the factors affecting the space use by 30 GPS-tracked griffon vultures (Gyps fulvus). Griffons’ foraging activity increased in the pasturelands occupied by transhumant herds, which implied greater vulture abundance at the landscape level during the livestock season. In contrast, facultative scavengers were more abundant without transhumant livestock herds, and the abundance of wild ungulates did not change in relation to livestock presence. We conclude that fostering transhumance and other traditional farming systems, to the detriment of farming intensification, could favour vulture conservation.

Camera trap placement for evaluating species richness, abundance, and activity

Information from camera traps is used for inferences on species presence, richness, abundance, demography, and activity. Camera trap placement design is likely to influence these parameter estimates. Herein we simultaneously generate and compare estimates obtained from camera traps (a) placed to optimize large carnivore captures and (b) random placement, to infer accuracy and biases for parameter estimates. Both setups recorded 25 species when same number of trail and random cameras (n = 31) were compared. However, species accumulation rate was faster with trail cameras. Relative abundance indices (RAI) from random cameras surrogated abundance estimated from capture-mark-recapture and distance sampling, while RAI were biased higher for carnivores from trail cameras. Group size of wild-ungulates obtained from both camera setups were comparable. Random cameras detected nocturnal activities of wild ungulates in contrast to mostly diurnal activities observed from trail cameras. Our results show that trail and random camera setup give similar estimates of species richness and group size, but differ for estimates of relative abundance and activity patterns. Therefore, inferences made from each of these camera trap designs on the above parameters need to be viewed within this context.

The Long-term Impacts of Hunting on Population Viability of Wild Ungulates in Tarangire, Northern Tanzania

<p>Hunting through illegal and legal means is increasingly recognised as a threat to the sustainability of wildlife populations in reserves throughout Africa. Despite this, in Tanzania, legal hunting has persisted and serves as a source of revenue for conserving these species. Poaching remains a major threat to wildlife populations in many parks and reserves of Tanzania and wildlife habitats are diminishing due to human activities. I examined the impacts of hunting on the long-term persistence of four wild ungulates; impala (Aepyceros melampus Matschie), Thomson's gazelle (Gazella thomsonii Gunther), wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus Thomas) and zebra (Equus burchellii Matschie) around Tarangire National Park, in northern Tanzania. I investigated the population sizes of these species using Distance sampling method and determined there were 4534 plus or minus 1393 impala 1398 plus or minus 491 Thomson's gazelle, 5199 plus or minus 2670 wildebeest, and 11223 plus or minus 4216 zebra, in the study area. I obtained an estimate of the legal offtake over a five year period from data provided by hunting companies and districts offices in charge of hunting in the area to establish an average size of annual legal offtake of the area. I estimated the poaching levels for each species using random response method by interviewing 298 household respondents within communities living around the area. This established that illegal kill were 2-3 times higher than legal offtake for all four animal species except zebra. The total annual harvests were 6.6% for impala, 18.2% for Thomson's gazelle, 5.2% for wildebeest and 2% for zebra, of population sizes. Using literature review I obtained vital life-history parameters for each species either from within Tarangire, or elsewhere in East Africa. The long-term viability of the four species was then examined under a computer program-VORTEX by constructing a series of models to test the effects of different hunting regimes. The models integrated mortality and fecundity rates, species population sizes and harvest (legal and illegal) rates. Of the four species, impala and Thomson's gazelle fared badly under all simulations, with up to 76% and 68% respectively of the modelled populations going extinct within 100 years under present 3 hunting levels. Wildebeest and zebra were more resilient to hunting. Zebra populations remained robust under current hunting rates. However, its population will slowly decline towards extinction when the hunting exceeds the current rate of 2%. The population of wildebeest will decline towards extinction if the current offtake of 5% persists. The impacts of illegal hunting are severe. This study is the first attempt to characterise the dynamics of the harvested ungulate populations in Tarangire, Tanzania. Poor understanding of this ecosystem especially on the demographic variables of these species, limit firm conclusions. Nevertheless, the findings presented here suggest that VORTEX modelling may be a useful tool for managing hunting at Tarangire and for highlighting research priorities.</p>

The Long-term Impacts of Hunting on Population Viability of Wild Ungulates in Tarangire, Northern Tanzania

<p>Hunting through illegal and legal means is increasingly recognised as a threat to the sustainability of wildlife populations in reserves throughout Africa. Despite this, in Tanzania, legal hunting has persisted and serves as a source of revenue for conserving these species. Poaching remains a major threat to wildlife populations in many parks and reserves of Tanzania and wildlife habitats are diminishing due to human activities. I examined the impacts of hunting on the long-term persistence of four wild ungulates; impala (Aepyceros melampus Matschie), Thomson's gazelle (Gazella thomsonii Gunther), wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus Thomas) and zebra (Equus burchellii Matschie) around Tarangire National Park, in northern Tanzania. I investigated the population sizes of these species using Distance sampling method and determined there were 4534 plus or minus 1393 impala 1398 plus or minus 491 Thomson's gazelle, 5199 plus or minus 2670 wildebeest, and 11223 plus or minus 4216 zebra, in the study area. I obtained an estimate of the legal offtake over a five year period from data provided by hunting companies and districts offices in charge of hunting in the area to establish an average size of annual legal offtake of the area. I estimated the poaching levels for each species using random response method by interviewing 298 household respondents within communities living around the area. This established that illegal kill were 2-3 times higher than legal offtake for all four animal species except zebra. The total annual harvests were 6.6% for impala, 18.2% for Thomson's gazelle, 5.2% for wildebeest and 2% for zebra, of population sizes. Using literature review I obtained vital life-history parameters for each species either from within Tarangire, or elsewhere in East Africa. The long-term viability of the four species was then examined under a computer program-VORTEX by constructing a series of models to test the effects of different hunting regimes. The models integrated mortality and fecundity rates, species population sizes and harvest (legal and illegal) rates. Of the four species, impala and Thomson's gazelle fared badly under all simulations, with up to 76% and 68% respectively of the modelled populations going extinct within 100 years under present 3 hunting levels. Wildebeest and zebra were more resilient to hunting. Zebra populations remained robust under current hunting rates. However, its population will slowly decline towards extinction when the hunting exceeds the current rate of 2%. The population of wildebeest will decline towards extinction if the current offtake of 5% persists. The impacts of illegal hunting are severe. This study is the first attempt to characterise the dynamics of the harvested ungulate populations in Tarangire, Tanzania. Poor understanding of this ecosystem especially on the demographic variables of these species, limit firm conclusions. Nevertheless, the findings presented here suggest that VORTEX modelling may be a useful tool for managing hunting at Tarangire and for highlighting research priorities.</p>

MAIN MEASURES TO IMPROVE THE HEALTH AND RESILIENCE OF WILD UNGULATES

It was shown that general and health-improving measures should be applied to improve health and resilience of wild ungulates. General measures include those that prevent the spread of parasites of various ecological groups: administrative and economic, biotechnical. Health-improving activities are carried out taking into account the biology of pathogens and natural and climatic conditions. The examples of the developed preparations, feed additives and methods of their use for the health improvement of wild ungulates and the enhancement of their resilience are given.