Penanda Klausa Adverbial Dalam Bahasa Angkola

An adverbial clause is a subordinate clause that serves to provide information on the main clause. The presence of an adverbial clause is not a must, but it can help create coherence in a discourse. This study aims to describe the markers of adverbial clauses in Angkola language. The method used is descriptive qualitative markers. Data collections are conducted by speaking, listening, and taking notes. The data in this study are adverbial clauses in Angkola language obtained from native Angkola speakers and also written sources obtained from Angkola language books. Data analysis was carried out by matching the data with the theory contained in the study, namely adverbial clause markers in Angkola language sentences. The results showed that there were five types of adverbial clauses in Angkola language, namely temporal clauses marked by the word dung 'after' and dompak 'when', conditional clauses marked by the word molo 'if', causal clauses (causal clause) which is marked by the word harana 'because', the purpose clause (purposal clause) which is marked by the word anso 'so that/so', and the concession clause (consessive clause) which is marked by the words bope 'although' and aha pe 'what ever'. The use of adverbial clauses can be found at the initial or final position in a sentence.

ІНФІНІТИВИ У ФУНКЦІЇ ВТОРИННОГО ПРЕДИКАТА У ТЕКСТІ БІОГРАФІЇ АРТАКСЕРКСА ПЛУТАРХА: ОСОБЛИВОСТІ ВІДТВОРЕННЯ У ПЕРЕКЛАДІ НОВОГРЕЦЬКОЮ МОВОЮ

In the article, infi nitives in the function of the secondary predicate, in particular, in the syntactic constructions Accusativus cum infi nitivo, Nominativus cum infi nitivo and in subordinate clauses with the conjunctions ὥστε and πρίν in the text of the biography of Artaxerxes by Plutarch are considered. In accordance with the purpose of the study, the descriptive method (for inventory, classifi cation and grammatical interpretation of infi nitives) and comparative analysis (for identifi cation of grammatical transformations of the ancient Greek infi nitive in New Greek translation and for assessment of their compliance with the original forms) were used. Elements of quantitative analysis have also been involved (to determine the main transformational means of translating infi nitives). The analysis has shown that the infi nitive as an non-fi nite form of the verb is rendered as a fi nite one, the most typical variant of translating the infi nitive in the construction Accusativus cum infi nitivo, in subordinate temporal clauses with the conjunction πρίν, and in the majority of clauses of result with the conjunction ώστε being conditional mood with the particle να (60 %). Infi nitives in the construction Nominativus cum infi nitivо and partly in subordinate clauses with the conjunction ώστε are usually translated by indicatives (35 %); in some cases the infi nitive is reproduced by descriptive expressions (5 %). Grammatical transformations are combined with lexical ones. In the translation, the same verb (15 %) as in Old Greek can be used, or it can be replaced by a synonymous verb (85 %) of New Greek due to the limited use of the corresponding Old Greek words in New Greek or their disappearance. Therefore, the absence of infi nitives in New Greek is represented in translation by other means and techniques, which have an equivalent semantic load and can adequately reproduce the meaning of a sentence with an infi nitive construction, and thus to render Plutarch’s literary passion for multifaceted action and information capacity of the text. Key words: Accusativus cum infi nitivo, Nominativus cum infi nitivo, subordinate clauses with conjunctions ὥστε and πρίν, translation, conditional mood with particle να, indicative mood, descriptive expression.

When-clauses and temporal meanings across languages

Typological studies have tended to take for granted the default interpretation for English and imposed ‘simultaneity’ as the basic meaning of when-clauses for all languages. This in opposition to the approach taken in reference grammars, which generally report temporal linkage markers like when as encoding one or several meanings. Data from languages other than English show that comparative studies should also be open to the possibility that when-clauses do not always, or only, denote simultaneity. To support this claim and argue against the default interpretation of simultaneity, in this study I explore the range of temporal meanings of when-clauses across languages and provide evidence from Spanish and Yaqui corpora. Unlike English, corpus-based studies show that Spanish equivalent cuando-clauses equally introduce simultaneous and sequential readings, while Yaqui o-/kai-clauses predominantly express sequential meanings. Furthermore, a convenience sample of 28 unrelated languages reveals that, if there is a when-clause in a language, it can locate the event of the adverbial clause earlier, later, or around the same time as the main clause. The analysis of the semantic side of when-clauses demonstrates that there are language-specific tendencies regarding their temporal meanings. On these grounds, I propose that a better understanding of when-clauses can be arrived at by classifying them as ‘unspecific’ temporal clauses. This categorization would motivate a richer analysis of new data and a systematic comparison between unspecific, simultaneous and sequential clauses. Finally, I advance a four-way classification regarding general versus specific markers, and the temporal relations they encode, two of which account for most languages analyzed.

When-clauses and temporal meanings across languages

Typological studies have tended to take for granted the default interpretation for English and imposed ‘simultaneity’ as the basic meaning ofwhen-clauses for all languages. This in opposition to the approach taken in reference grammars, which generally report temporal linkage markers likewhenas encoding one or several meanings. Data from languages other than English show that comparative studies should also be open to the possibility thatwhen-clauses do not always, or only, denote simultaneity. To support this claim and argue against the default interpretation of simultaneity, in this study I explore the range of temporal meanings ofwhen-clauses across languages and provide evidence from Spanish and Yaqui corpora. Unlike English, corpus-based studies show that Spanish equivalentcuando-clauses equally introduce simultaneous and sequential readings, while Yaquio-/kai-clauses predominantly express sequential meanings. Furthermore, a convenience sample of 28 unrelated languages reveals that, if there is awhen-clause in a language, it can locate the event of the adverbial clause earlier, later, or around the same time as the main clause. The analysis of the semantic side ofwhen-clauses demonstrates that there are language-specific tendencies regarding their temporal meanings. On these grounds, I propose that a better understanding ofwhen-clauses can be arrived at by classifying them as ‘unspecific’ temporal clauses. This categorization would motivate a richer analysis of new data and a systematic comparison between unspecific, simultaneous and sequential clauses. Finally, I advance a four-way classification regarding general versus specific markers, and the temporal relations they encode, two of which account for most languages analyzed.

La posición de las cláusulas temporales con cuando

Previous typological studies have shown that temporal clauses, unlike other adverbial clauses, can occur before or after the main clause, and this order variation has been observed across languages and within the same language. In the case of Spanish, some studies have found that temporal clauses tend to occur at the beginning of the clause. In this paper, we extend the assumptions of typological studies into the analysis of temporal clauses introduced by cuando ‘when’. Based in used data, we found that the initial position is preferred in oral data, while both positions are equally common in writing data. We examine some semantic, syntactic, and pragmatic motivations that, together, may explain this order variation: the semantic nature of cuando, sequential iconicity, length, and syntactic complexity, as well as pragmatic order.

Expletive Negation

This chapter provides the state-of-the-art around expletive negation (EN), by discussing: (i) the relationship between EN and negative concord; (ii) EN as a real negation; (iii) EN as a special formative linked to an additional evaluative/expressive layer in the semantics of language. Moreover, the chapter offers a potentially unifying analysis of EN in comparative, exclamative, and temporal clauses: EN as an operator of implicature denial. This approach derives the fact that EN is logically and compositionally independent from what is said from the fact that EN shifts the semantics of negation to the layer of implicated meaning. Some of the interpretive effects normally linked to the expressive/evaluative analysis of EN can be arguably derived as side-effects of this semantic analysis. The proposal advanced here has a number of implications regarding the relationship among morpho-syntax, pragmatic enrichment, and the non-incremental analysis of negation in theories of negation processing.