Root Development of Bell Pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) as Affected by Water Salinity and Sink Strength

Fruits are the dominant sinks for assimilates. At optimal conditions, assimilates supply can meet the demand of fruits and those of the vegetative organs; however, extreme circumstances such as strong sink strength or an environmental stress may disturb this fine balance. While most studies focus on aboveground parameters, information regarding root growth dynamics under variable sink strength are scarce. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of sink strength (represented by fruit load) and salinity on bell-pepper root development. Three levels of fruit load were combined with two salinity levels in plants grown in an aeroponic system. Root growth was determined both by root capacitance and destructive measurements. Salinity and sink strength significantly affected root, shoot and fruit growth dynamics. Root growth was less affected by fruit load. Salinity stress was negatively associated with shoot growth, but after an acclimation period, salinity enhanced root development. Additionally, this study shows for the first time that root capacitance is a valid approach for non-destructive measurement of root development in aeroponic systems. The good correlation measured by us (r2 0.86) opens new opportunities for continuous root growth monitoring in aeroponic systems in the future.

Electrical capacitance of roots in relation to plant electrodes, measuring frequency and root media

The electrical capacitance method was applied for the examination of living root systems in a pot experiment. The measured root capacitances gave an unambiguous indication of the development of root mass and length. The root capacitances measured using needle and clamp plant electrodes were closely similar when the roots of whole plants were placed in water, while increasing differences were observed with a decrease in soil water saturation. The difference in capacitance between the plant electrodes is outlined by interpreting the action mechanism of the clamp electrode. The capacitance and electrical impedance spectra (30 Hz-1 MHz) were determined for roots in soil, for pieces of roots washed free of soil, and for the soil itself. The root capacitance was smaller than that of the soil and higher than that of root pieces at 1 kHz, while the capacitance of the soil became equal to that of roots in soil at about 2 kHz. This calls attention to the importance of the measuring frequency when determining root capacitance. A capacitor model with two dielectric media is proposed besides Dalton's model in order to interpret the behaviour of root and soil capacitances. However, its validity requires further verification.

Electrical Capacitance as the Indicator of Root Size and Activity

A new method is introduced to agricultural practice for measuring the living active root of the plants. The measured root capacitance is interpreted in electro-chemical principles. In addition to the electrochemical interpretation of the measurements we aimed to find a non-wounding electrode instead of the needle plant electrode. Another reason for dealing with the tweezer plant electrode was to decrease the relatively high standard deviation of the root capacitance readings due to the relatively high uncertainty of hitting the xylem with the needle plant electrode. To improve and standardize the contact between the tweezer plant electrode and the stem a high electrical conductivity gel (UNIGEL) was applied on the stem before clipping the tweezers. Experiments for the root capacitance measurements were made in temperature and light controlled climate chambers (Conviron, Canada) in 2 litre plastic pots filled with 4:1 soil:sand mixture and water culture. Comparison of the root capacitances of five-week old sunflower plants measured with the needle and the tweezer plant electrodes proved identical in water culture and capillary water saturated soil. However, the applicability of the tweezer plant electrode needs further study for other plants and environmental conditions. The effect of measurement frequency on root capacitance and resistance with the HP4284A impedance bridge was also studied to see the effectiveness of polarization (Figure 1). From Figure 1 it can be seen that root capacitance decreased at frequencies above 1 kHz, while it increased up to the dielectric constant of water at lower frequencies. An interpretation of measurable root capacitance in the soil-plant system is given using separate measured plant tissue and soil capacitances. We established that root capacitance in the soil-plant system approximates the capacitance of the root tissue. Good correlation was found between root capacitance and the calculated root surface area (RA) for sunflower plants (Figure 2). The GW LCR-814 was found suitable for making root capacitance measurements. Finally, further experimental work is needed to collect information for the more general and extended applicability of the method before it becomes a routine tool in ecological and agricultural practice.

593 Water Stress Influences Soil/Root Respiration Rate and Root Morphology of Young Apple Trees

One-year-old potted `Mutsu' apple (Malus domestica) trees on MM.111 and M.9 rootstocks were grown outdoors from May to Nov. 1997, under three levels of soil-water availability (–20, –80, and –200 kPa), to evaluate the effects of water stress on soil/root respiration and root morphology. At weekly intervals, we measured soil/root respiration using a portable infrared gas analyzer and rootsystem size or functional activity using an electric capacitance meter. These observations were tested as nondestructive methods to estimate relative differences in root size and morphology in situ compared with final dry weight and form of excavated apple rootstocks. Root size-class distributions were estimated by digital imaging and analysis of harvested root systems. Root growth was substantially reduced by water stress; the magnitude of reduction was similar for both rootstocks, but the percentage of shoot growth reduction was higher for MM.111. Root: shoot ratios were higher and average specific respiration rates over the growing season were lower for M.9 root systems. Water stress increased the root: shoot ratio, specific root length, and carbon costs of root maintenance as indicated by specific respiration rates. Soil/root respiration was more closely correlated than root electric capacitance with actual root system size. The observed r2 values between root capacitance and root dry weight were as high as 0.73, but root capacitance was also confounded by other factors, limiting its usefulness for nondestructive estimation of root size or activity. Rootstock genotype significantly affected root capacitance, which provided better estimates of root dry weight for M.9 than for MM.111.