Ritual, Legend, and Metaphor: Narratives of the Willow in Yuan Zaju

Narratives of willow trees in Yuan zaju 雜劇, or variety play, largely come in three types, namely, the ritual performance of shooting willows; the deliverance of willow spirits by Lü Dongbin, one of the Eight Immortals of Daoism; and the use of the word willow to refer to women. The willow shooting ritual depicted in Yuan zaju was highly reminiscent of the willow shooting ritual popular throughout the Song (960–1279), Liao (916–1125), Jin (1115–1234), and Yuan (1271–1368) dynasties, with its conceptual origins traceable to the ancient shamanic belief in the willow as a sacred tree prevalent among the Khitans and Jurchens who lived in what is now northeastern China. The legend of Lü Dongbin delivering a willow spirit to immortality is a recurring motif in Han Chinese folklore and Daoist hagiography, which also finds expression in the iconic image of Guanyin Pusa or Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara holding a willow branch with which they cure diseases for people and bring fulfillment to their wishes. The frequent use of “willow leaf-shaped eyebrows” (liumei 柳眉) and “willow-like waist” (liuyao 柳腰) in Yuan zaju as metaphorical references to women can be seen as a continuation of the great literary tradition of Shijing 詩經 (The Book of Songs) and also as a dramatic enactment of the fertility cult of the willow and women in Chinese folk religion. Evidence abounds that the narratives about the willow in Yuan zaju were not a new creation but an artistic manifestation of centuries-old folk belief and literary tradition.

Erysichthon Goes to Town: James Lasdun’s Modern American Re-telling of Ovid

<p>The Erysichthon of Ovid’s Metamorphoses is given, in James Lasdun’s re-telling of the story, a repeat performance of chopping down a sacred tree, receiving the punishment of insatiable hunger, selling his daughter, and eating himself. Transgressive greed, impiety, and environmental destruction are elements appearing already amongst the Greek sources of this ancient myth, but Lasdun adds new weight to the environmental issues he brings out of the story, turning Erysichthon into a corrupt property developer. The modern American setting of “Erisychthon” lets the poem’s themes roam a long distance down the roads of selfimprovement, consumption, and future-centredness, which contrast with Greek ideas about moderation, and perfection being located in the past. These themes lead us to the eternally unfulfilled American Dream. Backing up our ideas with other sources from or about America, we discover how well the Erysichthon myth fits some of the prevailing approaches to living in America, which seem to have stemmed from the idea that making the journey there would lead to a better life. We encounter not only the relationship between Ovid and Lasdun’s versions of the story, but between the earth and its human inhabitants, and find that some attitudes can be traced back a long way.</p>

Erysichthon Goes to Town: James Lasdun’s Modern American Re-telling of Ovid

<p>The Erysichthon of Ovid’s Metamorphoses is given, in James Lasdun’s re-telling of the story, a repeat performance of chopping down a sacred tree, receiving the punishment of insatiable hunger, selling his daughter, and eating himself. Transgressive greed, impiety, and environmental destruction are elements appearing already amongst the Greek sources of this ancient myth, but Lasdun adds new weight to the environmental issues he brings out of the story, turning Erysichthon into a corrupt property developer. The modern American setting of “Erisychthon” lets the poem’s themes roam a long distance down the roads of selfimprovement, consumption, and future-centredness, which contrast with Greek ideas about moderation, and perfection being located in the past. These themes lead us to the eternally unfulfilled American Dream. Backing up our ideas with other sources from or about America, we discover how well the Erysichthon myth fits some of the prevailing approaches to living in America, which seem to have stemmed from the idea that making the journey there would lead to a better life. We encounter not only the relationship between Ovid and Lasdun’s versions of the story, but between the earth and its human inhabitants, and find that some attitudes can be traced back a long way.</p>

Ficus benghalensis (banyan).

F. benghalensis is a very large, long-lived evergreen tree with thick spreading horizontal branches, from which numerous aerial roots descend and take root, forming new trunks. It is endemic to India and the sub-Himalayan region, and inhabits evergreen and semi-deciduous forest. F. benghalensis has been introduced in Uganda, Zanzibar and Florida. In India, it is considered a sacred tree with wish-fulfilling properties.In the wild, F. benghalensis is naturally dispersed via the excrement of birds and monkeys, and only seeds deposited in the canopy will germinate. This species initially exists as an epiphyte that will rapidly send down roots and begin to envelop the host tree, eventually killing it. F. benghalensis is a strong light-demander and is unable to germinate or grow in the shade (Hocking, 1993). It is frost-hardy, and the leaves may recover quickly from severe frosts. It is susceptible to fire, although seldom are its many stems all killed by fire. F. benghalensis is drought-resistant, though it may lose leaves in hot dry seasons. The wood is of poor quality, and is mainly used for fuelwood, boxes, posts, and small agricultural implements. Due to its durability under water, the wood is used to form well-curbs. Generally the fruit is only eaten in times of famine. F. benghalensis has medicinal properties: the sap is used to treat rheumatism and lumbago; the bark may cure dysentery, diarrhoea and diabetes; leaves are applied to abscesses; and root fibres are used in gonad problems (Hocking, 1993). An inferior rubber may be obtained from the latex of the bark. F. benghalensis can be artificially propagated by cuttings or seed. Both seedlings and cuttings require light and plenty of moisture for optimum growth (Gupta, 1993). F. benghalensis tends to grow slowly in less preferred conditions, such as acid soils, high rainfall, cool temperatures and coastal belts (Hocking, 1993). Aerial roots may begin to develop after 15-20 years, and regular pruning will prevent excessive canopy development. F. benghalensis is extensively planted for shade and as an ornamental in gardens, villages or along roadsides. The aggressive nature and spreading crown of this species make it unsuitable for unmanaged cultivation. However, with regular pollarding, heavy lopping and pruning of aerial roots, it is suitable for silvopastoral systems, and is used to provide fodder and hedging (Hocking, 1993). It is also used to reclaim wasteland and sand dunes.

THE IMAGE OF A TREE IN ANCIENT LITERARY HERITAGE

The scientific article deals with the image of a tree in the literary heritage of ancient times. Speaking of the heritage of ancient literature, we must first take into account that the works are common not only to the Kazakh people, but also to the literature of other peoples of Turkic origin, written in the ancient Turkic language. One of such common heritages is the target symbol of the mykan tree, which has become a symbol of the legends on which our article is based. There are many legends about the giant tree, the saying "My giant tree has fallen" about the tree, which reflects the roots of the deep-rooted Turkic peoples. This word has a long history of its own meaning, as well as legends, and to this day it has found its place in history as a sacred tree, which is described in detail in the article with specific examples.

The perception of sacred trees as proponent of water spring in Malang Regency East Java, Indonesia

A spring is a place where water comes out of the ground seepage, seeps into the soil, then flows through cracks, gaps or natural tracts. Springs (sumber, tuk, umbulan, belik) are used to extract water by local people. This study was aimed at uncovering the knowledge about the types of sacred trees which supported the traditional conservation for water spring in Malang regency. The survey was carried out directly by taking three specimens in the spring environment. Interviews were conducted in person, in-depth, semi-structurally to the local community and tribe leaders. This study contained also the description of the diversity of sacred tree species which supported water spring in Malang Regency, East Java. The results of the study recorded 41 types of 27 genera and 20 families. The diversity of sacred tree species that are believed to be sacred include: ringin (Ficusbenyamina), lo (Ficusglomerata), serut (Streblusasper), ipik-ipik (Ficusprocera), ilat-ilat (Ficuscallosa), bendo (Artocarpuselastica), jambuklampokwatu (Syzygiumlittorale), aren (Arengapinnata), gayam (Inocarpusfagifer), cangkring (Erythrinafusca). The types of water spring supporter are: bambuori (Bambusablumeana), bambubetung (Dendrocalamusasper), bambuapus (Gigantochloaapus), and of the familiaApocynaceae (Ervatamiasphaerocarpa), kecrutan (Spathodeacampanulata), warugunung (Hibiscus similis) etc. The existence of those meaningful trees is a symbol of the existence of a spring and the start of sustainable culture and customs in Malang Raya. Thus, petrenneeds to get the recognition as a longer, traditional conservation model from the government especially from the local government in a form of village regulation. Preserving the springs and environment is a local wisdom of the people of Malang regency, in an effort to preserve traditional conservation and harmony with the lives of other organisms. Asian J. Med. Biol. Res. September 2020, 6(3): 425-430

Jewellery from Burial 2 Kurgan 1 Filippovka 1 Cemetery: Manufacturing Techniques, Purpose and Semantics of Images

The article is dedicated to the publication of the unique jewelry which was found in the untouched noble female’s grave-pit of the Early Sarmatian elite burial ground located at Southern Urals. It stands out with an unordinary complicated construction, polychrome style, a variety of materials and techniques used in its manufacture, central disc containing cloisonne artwork. Analysis of the item’s burial context convincingly showed this item was not worn as a decoration in social life, but it was the precious relic used in religious ceremonies and ritual practices for short periods of time. A detailed study of manufacturing technology allows us to reconstruct the fastening ways and application methods for this jewelry. The search of analogies for images placed on the central medallion, made it possible to clarify its compositional semantics. Its central character is the sacred tree, guarded by the divine power of “khvarenah” deity. “Khvarenah” is presented by two guises - the winged sun disc and the sacred Veraghna birds. General meaning of the ritual reflects the idea of increasing fertility: ensuring the well-being and increasing offspring numbers, health, wealth and prosperity of the family. New Assyrian compositional scheme used in the medallion. It appeared at the beginning of the IX century BC and actively spread in Urartu and pre-Achaemenid Media since the VIII-VII centuries BC. This relic was found in the early nomadic burial site dating back to the IV century BC. All these show the significant continuity of ancient Iranian religious cults. They continue to exist in the satrapies of Achaemenid Iran, they are perceived by the elite of the Sarmatian tribes of the Southern Urals and they spread in a nomadic environment.