CASE MARKING OF PATIENT IN THE PARTICIPIAL PASSIVE CONSTRUCTION IN HILL MARI

В статье рассматриваются две пассивные конструкции в горномарийском языке. В обеих из них используется причастная форма на -mə̑; основное различие между конструкциями состоит в падежном оформлении пациентивного участника. В одной из конструкций сохраняется исходное аккузативное маркирование пациенса, тогда как в другой конструкции пациентивный участник получает номинативное оформление. Цель исследования — сравнительный анализ двух разновидностей пассива и выявление закономерностей, лежащих в основе выбора падежного оформления пациенса. В литературе по пассивным конструкциям во многих языках отмечается наличие двух пассивных конструкций: адъективного пассива со стативной семантикой и глагольного пассива с динамической семантикой. Это же различие ожидалось увидеть и применительно к горномарийскому причастному пассиву. Для проверки этого предположения были изучены: а) синтаксические особенности конструкций, соотношение в них именных и глагольных свойств, б) аспектуальная семантика конструкций, а именно противопоставление стативной и динамической семантики, в) особенности кодирования участников и контексты с различным референциальным статусом пациенса. Было установлено, что пассив с номинативным кодированием пациенса в целом характеризуется именным синтаксисом, стативной семантикой и обязательной определенностью пациенса, тогда как пассив с аккузативным кодированием имеет глагольный синтаксис, динамическую семантику и не ограничен с точки зрения референциальных свойств пациенса. Единственным наблюдаемым отклонением от данных закономерностей является одинаковая допустимость обеих разновидностей пассива в хабитуальных контекстах, что подлежит дальнейшему выяснению. На основе выявленных закономерностей было сделано обобщение, что пассив с номинативным кодированием пациенса описывает состояние, возникшее в результате некоторого события, тогда как пассив с аккузативным кодированием описывает само событие. В качестве итога исследования предложена интерпретация семантического различия между конструкциями в теоретической парадигме синтаксиса первой фазы Дж. Рэмчанд: аккузативную конструкцию можно рассматривать как конструкцию с озвучиванием каузирующего и процессуального подсобытия, а номинативную — как конструкцию с озвучиванием результирующего подсобытия. The article provides an account of two participial passive constructions employing the -mə̑- participle in Hill Mari. The data was collected in 2017 and 2019 in the villages of Kuznetsovo and Mikryakovo of the Gornomarijskij district, Republic of Mari El. The two constructions with the -mə̑- participle differ in the first place in how the patient is marked: in one of them the patient is marked for nominative, whereas in the other construction the accusative marking is inherited from the transitive verb. The aim of this study is to compare the two constructions in terms of their syntax and semantics and explore the rules that govern the choice between them. In the existing literature two kinds of passive constructions are described: adjectival passive constructions with stative interpretation and verbal passive constructions with dynamic interpretation. The two Hill Mari -mə̑- constructions were expected to demonstrate the same distinction. In order to test this hypothesis, we considered a) the syntactic properties of the constructions, and the nominal or verbal behavior of the -mə̑- form in both cases; b) the aspectual semantics of the two constructions, i.e. the possibility of stative and dynamic interpretation in both constructions; c) the marking of the arguments in the constrictions, i.e. the possibility of overt expression of the agent and the referential properties of the patient. Syntactically, the passive construction with the nominative marking of the patient turned out to be an adjectival predication. This construction is stative, and the nominative patient NP is always definite. The construction with accusative patient marking is a verbal clause with a dynamic interpretation. The accusative patient NP may have any referential properties. However, both constructions can refer to habitual events, which needs further investigation. The observed properties of the two constructions lead to the following generalization: the construction with nominative patient marking denotes a resultant state of an event, whereas the construction with accusative patient marking denotes the event itself. This difference may be interpreted in the first phase syntax framework developed by G. Ramchand: in the nominative construction the patient is the Resultee, whereas in the accusative construction the patient is the Undergoer.

COMPLEX MECHANISMS IN ROAD TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS CONCERNING PEDESTRIANS. A CASE STUDY

Pedestrian injuries vary according to vehicle type, position during the accident, and pedestrian’s age, thus determining complex aspects by associating multiple types of traumas. In forensic practice, it should be noted that the lesion-producing mechanisms recorded among pedestrians are most frequently mixed, reason for which a correct and careful examination of the victim must be supported by the characteristics of the vehicle involved in the accident, as well as by other elements at the crime scene. It is necessary to thoroughly examine the injuries, an analysis that should always be characterized by a dynamic interpretation, directly related to the mechanism of accident occurrence, with case-by-case individualization, to result in the clarification of conditions difficult to grasp at a superficial interpretation. This article aims to briefly review the main lesion mechanisms in case of pedestrians, to emphasize on the importance of understanding the complexity of these injuries, in order to elucidate – as accurately as possible – the circumstances of such an ill-fated event.

Tafsir Ilmi in Indonesia: History, Paradigm and Dynamic Interpretation

Interpretation writing in Indonesia has been going on long enough. First appeared in sixteenth Century. A quiver of Indonesian interpretations after grows more and more. The motifs of interpretaation varied. Scientific interpretation is the one who took a role in this and it is said to have emerged in the 1980s to date. During that time, many of ilmi's interpretation have appeared in Indonesia. The Study attempts to unravel the history of ilmi's interpretation, paradim and ITS dynamic. The method used is a descriptive method with qualitative approach by restricting the focus of the work to ilmi's interpretation in Indonesia. The result of this Study suggest that Ilmi interpretation in Indonesia is dynamic and veried and is experincing promising development.

Part V The Scope of Refugee Protection, Ch.45 Conflict Refugees

Armed conflicts have always been and still are major causes of refugee movements. They invariably cause human suffering, destroying State and societal structure and affecting the lives of civilian populations. While it is difficult to contest that people should not be returned to conflict, different thinking and practices are discernable in relation to the applicable legal framework for providing refugee protection to people displaced across borders by conflict. These discrepancies arise in part from the way in which conflicts are understood; the way in which the definition of a refugee in the Refugee Convention has been interpreted and applied; and in part from limitations in the definition itself. Recognizing ‘conflict refugees’ as refugees within the international legal framework requires an understanding of the dynamics of conflicts and a dynamic interpretation of the refugee definitions at global and regional levels.

Validity and Ultra Vires Acts

The legal validity of the law produced by international organizations is a vexed issue. This chapter explores how it is affected by the absence of a comprehensive concept of an international organization. The functionalist perspective privileges a notion of ultra vires which refers to acts or actions of an international organization which overstep its attributed competences. Conversely, the constitutional perspective adopts a dynamic interpretation under which it is more difficult to determine the invalidity of a rule. First, the chapter describes how the International Court of Justice adopted an either/or approach based on the two conceptualizations. Afterwards, it applies the dual legal nature explaining how the rules have two parameters of legality, deriving from the international and the internal legal system. This finding is applied to the invalidity of a treaty caused by the violation of a rule and to the respect for customary law.

Taking the Historical-Social Dimension Seriously: A Reply to Bandini et al.

In our recent article, "Where Does Cumulative Culture Begin? A Plea for a Sociologically Informed Perspective" (Haidle and Schlaudt in Biol Theory 15:161–174, 2020) we commented on a fundamental notion in current approaches to cultural evolution, the “zones of latent solutions” (henceforth ZLS), and proposed a modification of it, namely a social and dynamic interpretation of the latent solutions which were originally introduced within an individualistic framework and as static, genetically fixed entities. This modification seemed, and still seems, relevant to us and, in particular, more adequate for coping with the archaeological record. Bandini et al. (Biol Theory, 2021) rejected our proposition and deemed it unnecessary. In their critique, they focused on: (1) our reservations about an individualistic approach; (2) our objections to the presumption of fully naive individuals; and (3) our demand for an extended consideration of forms of social learning simpler than emulation and imitation. We will briefly reply to their critique in order to clarify some misunderstandings. However, the criticisms also show that we are at an impasse on certain crucial topics, such as the meaning of ZLS and the scope and nature of culture in general. Thus, we consider it necessary to make an additional effort to identify the conceptual roots which are at the very basis of the dissent with Bandini et al.

THE BOUNDARIES PROBLEM OF THE 1950 EUROPEAN CONVENTION DYNAMIC INTERPRETATION ON HUMAN RIGHTS ON THE EXAMPLE OF ENSURING THE SOCIAL RIGHTS OF CONVICTS

The 1950 Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms is an instrument for the dynamic development of the human rights system in the member states of the European Council. Such an active formation of the latter is due to the activities of the European Court of Human Rights. However, the case-law of the court is not always accepted in national jurisdictions, especially when it comes to the most sensitive areas of life in modern societies. As the goal of the research, the author sets out the identification of the current approach of this international court to the problem of social rights of convicts, especially in the context of ensuring their social rights. The material for the research was the case-law of the ECHR on the social rights of citizens - with special attention to the rights of persons in places of isolation from society, the legal positions of domestic researchers on the problem posed. The author uses traditional research methods - general scientific and special, with an emphasis on historical, social and legal methods. The paper describes the stages of the international soft law sources formation on penitentiary rules and the impact on this of the ECHR practice in the context of the discrimination standarts prohibition regarding the right of ownership and violation of the forced (compulsory) labor prohibition. A common European standard “the right of a convicted person to retire” has not yet been developed, which has been confirmed in the practice of the ECHR. This decision is due to the need to maintain the effectiveness of the entire convention system, the policy of compromises with states. Through the dynamic interpretation of the ECHR, this right is recognized as an element of the convention rights protection, the convict should be granted an increasing amount of social rights.