An Expressionist Painter of the Fourteenth Century

Theophanes the Greek was one of the well-known artists of exceptional personality who lived in the second half of the 14th century. His talent stood out on account of the expressionist manner in which he portrayed his art creations and their impact on the school of Russian religious painting. His artistic talent, “swift brush” painting manner and life adventure can be compared with those of Doménikos Theotokópoulos (El Greco), another famous Greek painter, who brought the Cretan dramatic and expressionistic style to the West, influencing the Spanish Renaissance two hundred years after Theophanes. The artistic heritage of Theophanes stands between the short vibrant period of the Palaeologan Renaissance when the Byzantine Empire went through a terminal crisis, and the European Proto-Italian Renaissance. The artist seized the opportunity to unleash his creative work in the ancient Russian cities, unfolding his talent in the creation of large mural paintings. Characterized by his contemporaries as “Theophanes the Greek, icon painter and philosopher”, he enjoyed a high reputation in medieval Russian society. Present article questions Theophanes’ belonging to the hesychast movement and the attribution of the Muscovite icons and manuscripts to the painter. Considering the impact of Theophanes on Russian visual art, D. Talbot Rice stated: “It was thanks to the teaching of Greek immigrants like Theophanes that a sound foundation was established Russian painting, and it was on this basis that local styles were founded.” And it was in the Russian principalities that Theophanes developed his very distinctive style, enjoying carte blanche from the princes and boyars (aristocracy) to apply his creativity in various domains.

The Embassy Headed by Petr Mansurov and Semen Samsonov (1615—1619) and the “Greek” Secular Migration

The article studies the lives of immigrants who came from the Ottoman Empire to Russia with the Embassy of Petr Mansurov and Semen Samsonov. The archival material allows us to trace the lives of the immigrants and their descendants in Russia up to the mid/late 17th century. The documents also offer a possibility to reconstruct the social status of the immigrants in the Ottoman Empire. Almost all of them belonged to the military class and had previously moved from the Balkans to the Danube principalities. In Russia, they retained their social status and were engaged by the Office for foreign military servants affairs (Inozemsky Prikaz). Many died while guarding Russia’s southern borders. Only one person lived a long life in Russia — Nikolai Kralev, who rose to the rank of captain. He spent about 33 years in Russia. The obtained information expands our understanding of the mechanisms of adaptation and the ways of naturalization of “Greek” immigrants in Russian society.

Influence or Silence? Once more on the role of Sophia Paleologos in the court life Ivan III and the question of her participation in the invitation of Italian masters to Moscow

В данной статье рассмотрен вопрос об участии Софьи Палеолог в деле приглашения итальянских мастеров на русскую службу в последней четверти XV в. Этот сюжет раскрыт в контексте более широкой проблемы — степени и возможности участия великой княгини в придворной жизни Москвы в целом. Обращая внимание на бытующие в науке стереотипы и ошибочные и/или не доказанные (пусть и привычные) суждения, автор стремится разграничить образ Софьи как символической фигуры и реальные свидетельства о ее деятельности. Кроме того, с целью обнаружения реальных возможностей участия Софьи в жизни московского двора рассмотрен вопрос об особенностях воспитания Софьи в Риме: могли ли Софье в Риме преподавать риторику – искусство убеждать, необходимое для активной политической позиции? На основании накопленного в науке опыта автор полагает, что Софья активной позиции не занимала, хотя и была значимым для московского двора символом, пусть и по-разному воспринимаемым разными придворными группами (сторонниками и противниками курса Ивана III, греками-эмигрантами, итальянскими мастерами и др.). Автор приходит к выводу о том, что роль Софьи Палеолог в приглашении мастеров не стоит преувеличивать: по всей видимости, вплоть до династического кризиса рубежа XV-XVI вв. Софья не имела существенного влияния при московском дворе. The article examines the issue of Sofia Palaiologina in the invitation of Italian masters to Russian service in the last quarter of the 15th century. This issue is examined through a broader problematic context – the limits to which a Grand Princess could take part in Moscow’s court life. Paying due attention to the stereotypes, mistaken and/or unproven conclusions dwelling in the academic discourse, the author seeks to separate the image of Sofia Palaiologina as a symbolic figure with the actual surviving evidence of her activity. Alongside the goal of establishing the actual evidence of Sofia’s participation in Moscow court life, the author also seeks to examine the issue of Sofia’s education in Rome: during the years spent in Rome, could Sofia have studied rhetoric – an art vital for an active political position? On the basis of the existing corpus of research, the author comes to the conclusion that Sofia Paleologina did not occupy an active position, even though she remained an important symbol for Moscow’s Court, a symbol that was perceived quite differently by various court groups (proponents and opponents of Ivan III’s political course, Greek immigrants, Italian masters, etc.). The author comes to the conclusion that the role of Sofia Palaiologina should not be exaggerated: it seems that Sofia did wield sufficient influence at court, until the dynastic crisis that erupted on the brink of 15th—16th centuries.

The cultural horizons of the Plebs Romana

The paper treats the evidence for a memory-rooted, music-based oral culture among the Romans below equestrian rank. Sources of popular culture for this group include the army, Greek immigrants, popular preachers and poets, the theatre and other public performances, mingling in inns and other public places, and story-telling. Sources discussed include Petronius and Cicero.

The Journey

Chapter 2 recounts the first-generation Greek immigrants’ journey to America. Travel from Greece to America, settlement in urban and rural areas, and adaptation to new social/cultural mores are examined. Women immigrants’ lives and the lives of the women left behind in Greece are highlighted.

Finding a Niche in Chicago and St. Louis

Chapter 4 provides more details about the organizations and institutions, often associated with the Progressive Era, that provided educational, social, and cultural guidance and language instruction to help immigrants assimilate and acculturate in this strange and very different land. The focus is on Chicago and St. Louis, the cities to which first-generation Greek immigrants in central Illinois initially migrated. The latter half of the chapter describes the Greeks’ gradual entry into the food business and specifically the confectionery and soda fountain business, something for which they had no prior training in Greece. Their success at this trade is revealed in the fact that by 1910 there were an estimated 3,000 Greek confectioners in Chicago.

My Grandfather and His Mentors

The final three chapters turn specifically to central Illinois and the Greek immigrants who settled in the small cities and towns where they established candy and soda fountain stores. These chapters highlight the networking, chain migration, entrepreneurship, and mutual education and support found among these early Greek immigrants. Chapter 6 focuses on two of the earliest Greeks, Peter Vriner and George Vaky, who first opened a store in Champaign-Urbana in 1898. In 1901 they opened a second store in Tuscola, and Peter Vriner’s cousin Gus Flesor came there to learn the trade. In this chapter the stories of Vriner, Vaky, and other first-generation Greek candy makers in Champaign-Urbana are told, along with a recounting of Gus Flesor’s successful life, the Flesor family, and the Candy Kitchen he founded, now owned by his granddaughters.

Acculturation and Americanization

Chapter 3’s emphasis is on the Greek immigrants’ need to acculturate, assimilate, and become American, or not, in their new homes. They faced, especially after 1910, extreme prejudice and racism, a rising tide of anti-hyphenation, and a “100 percent Americanism” sentiment that always questioned their patriotism and loyalty to the United States. In post–World War I America these sentiments became more extreme, culminating in the anti-immigration acts of the mid-1920s.

Foundations

To understand the Greek immigrants’ story it is necessary to know where they originated and the impetus for leaving their homeland. Chapter 1 provides the geographical, historical, social, cultural, and political background necessary to appreciate why hundreds of thousands of Greek men and women immigrated to America between 1880 and 1930.