Korsets gåde – en undersøgelse af offerbegrebets filosofiske og teologiske implikationer

According to Asle Eikrem’s book “God as Sacrificial love”, the concept of the Christian God as a God of love is not coherent with the claim that Jesus was sacrificed on the cross for the redemption of human sins. Eikrem’s conclusion builds on a conceptual framework that describes the crucifixion as a self-sacrifice. His argument makes Jesus co-responsible, thus sanctioning the violent action. This way, evil becomes instrumental which is inconsistent with the notion of God as love. It is the intention of this article to show that (at least) one alternative conceptual framework makes it possible to maintain the view that the crucifixion was necessary for Jesus’ redemptive mission. The crucifixion is thus not inconsistent with, but rather a consequence of the conception of God as love. For Jesus to realize God’s incarnational intention of establishing a living fellowship with humanity is for him to realize a fellowship of experienced damnation followed by a truly redemptive resurrection.

VALUE OF ACTIVE COMPASSION IN THE HEROIC EPIC: RUSSIAN EPIC CONCEPT

The article uses the comparative historical method to analyze epic folklore from around the world with regard to the functioning of the concept of active compassion. Proceeding from extensive factual material, the author demonstrates that different national and civilizational traditions imply various interpretations of this concept. While The Epic of Gilgamesh, Homer’s Iliad, and medieval Western European epic songs don’t treat mercy as an axiologically important principle, the folk epics created by the Orthodox peoples maintain its value in accordance with the Christian ideal of sacrificial love. This interpretation is clearly presented in the Byzantine epic poem Digenes Akritas, in Serbian heroic songs, and, especially, in Russian bylinas, where one of the main heroes, Ilya Muromets, is very often motivated precisely by compassion. The author’s observations suggest that the concept of mercy, organically inherent in Russian folk epics, influenced the subsequent literary tradition as well, being reflected, for instance, in the poetics of the Russian psychological novel.

Eschatology

Reinhold Niebuhr’s eschatology is the culmination of his anthropology. Because humans are finite, history must have an end; because humans are free, history must have a purpose. The biblical prophets anticipated the climax of history in their visions of the messiah, but also exposed the pride inherent in human hearts. Jesus revealed the meaning of history through the cross: suffering love. Since agape will always be at least partially defeated in history, humans currently wait in an interim for the second coming of Christ and the triumph of sacrificial love. Niebuhr explains that Scripture proclaims the eschaton through the symbols of the Parousia, the Last Judgement, and the Resurrection. These symbols must be viewed as meaningful without being literal. Pride often perverts eschatological understanding, causing humans to ignore the limitations of humanity or despair of their finitude. Niebuhr’s eschatological proclamations are circumspect, but their vagueness allows them to avoid the pride of which Niebuhr so frequently warns.

Revolution as herald of new bliss in early English romantic poetry

The idea that the Great French Revolution for the age of early English Romanticism is a signal for mankind to transition into a new era, into a new apocalyptic time of the end of human history, is considered established in modern literary studies. At the same time, such issues remain underdeveloped as the relationship between the images of the Golden Age, paradise regained, and New Jerusalem in the poetry of Elder English Romantic poets and the interpretation of modernity in its connection with the past in the context of a biblical myth. The search for answers to these two questions is the goal of this research. The study is conducted within the framework of comparative literary studies with elements of comparative cultural studies. The significant results include the ideas that the human history during the early poetry by Elder English Romantic poets is depicted as mankind’s transition from blissful primordial harmony of the unity of the person-in-love with nature and another person to the oppressed-divided internal (spiritual) and external (social and political) state and, finally, to the new external (free) and internal (spiritually harmonious) bliss. In this new image of human history, the biblical myth of the Last Judgment and the New Jerusalem is superimposed on the idea of the return of the Golden Age and, simultaneously, paradise lost, and is interpreted through enlightenment ideas and romantic philosophy and aesthetics. The Great French Revolution seems to be the precursor of not only the common longing for the new bliss but also the transformation of human nature on the way to returning to the righteous state of sacrificial love.

Children’s moral culture in the context of the Christian-anthropological worldview

Introduction. The themes of good and evil, familiarizing the younger generation with the universal values of Good, Truth, and Beauty have been in the focus of the world pedagogical and ethical thought since ancient times, but are especially relevant in the modern era of the postmodern discrediting of all standards. The research purpose is to form a more complete theoretical understanding of the problem of the formation of children’s moral culture in the light of the Christian-anthropological worldview and the patristic doctrine of virtues. Materials and methods. The study was conducted using general scientific theoretical methods: hermeneutic analysis, generalization, synthesis, abstraction, induction and deduction, interpretation of results. Results. As a result of the study, the following definition of the phenomenon of “moral culture” in the context of the Christian-anthropological worldview was given. Moral culture is a system of moral and ethical guidelines and personality traits based on absolute moral values and Christian virtues: abstinence, chastity, mercy, meekness, joy, courage, humility, and love. Moral culture is manifested in the moral behavior and actions of a person and determined by the moral consciousness of an individual striving for self-improvement, heartfelt purity, and good deeds – through the feat of Christian life, overcoming vices and passions. Researchers come to the conclusion that the highest Christian virtue – sacrificial love for God and people – is impossible without the virtue of humility, which is considered in moral theology as a measure of holiness, the foundation of the entire structure of a person’s spiritual and moral life. Discussion and conclusion. Moral culture formation is of intimate and discrete nature, it continues throughout a person’s life, representing its highest goal and ideal. Morality cannot be formed, assimilated exclusively by external influence, it is based on the individual autonomy, the synergy of a person’s own efforts, and the action of Divine grace. Researchers conclude that moralization and moral terror are unacceptable in the formation of children’s moral culture. The research results can be taken into account in the practical activities of teachers working in Orthodox general education and weekend schools, as well as in family education.

Conceptualizing the Atonement

If belief in the redemptive nature of the life and death of Christ is to be intellectually defensible, Christian philosophers must have an account of it that is not only philosophically coherent, but also morally unobjectionable. Drawing on feminist theology, this chapter explores the epistemological and gendered implications of traditional approaches to the atonement; namely, the normalization of submission to violence and the idealization of suffering. Conceiving of redemption as arising out of sacrificial submission to violence has corrupted the shared hermeneutical resources through which Christian communities conceptualize ethical conduct, love, and virtue. Borrowing in part from those who have suggested a moral influence view, like Abelard, this chapter argues that Christian philosophers should pursue a new kind of exemplarist model. That is, perhaps death has no central role in what redeems us, nor sacrificial love, but rather resisting injustice, even when the risks of doing so may be fatal.

The image of Solveig in the ballet “Peer Gynt” on H. Ibsen’s dramatic poem (staged by the Kharkiv National Academic Opera and Ballet Theatre)

Introduction. The given article is devoted to study of the Ukrainian ballet continuing to produce new ways of implementation of the ideas and artistic images in the beginning of the XXI century. The production of the ballet “Peer Gynt” on the music by E. Grieg, done by People’s artist of Ukraine V. Pisarev for the troupe of Donetsk ‘A. Solovianenko’ Academic State Theatre of Opera and Ballet is a remarkable example of this process. The production’s premiere was on, 1997, May 17, in the framework of the international theatre project “Ukraine – Norway”. Twenty years later, in 2017, the new variant of the ballet has been created for Kharkiv National Opera and Ballet Theatre named after M. V. Lysenko. This “Kharkiv variant” was staged regarding specifics of Kharkiv theatre’s troupe, while retaining the choreographic text of the original; it is marked by scenography and decorations being more spectacular and modern. The work by H. Ibsen received harsh critique from literary scholars who gave plenty of negative reviews of it, and it was E.Grieg’s music that led this poetic drama to wide recognition and popularity it has today. H. Ibsen’s piece became a base for more than the ten of films, directed from 1915 until 2006. As well as E Grieg’s music, which mostly accompanies the theatrical and cinematic interpretations of the drama poem, there are homonymous opera by Werner Egk (1938) and the ballet by John Neumeier, created in a collaboration with A. Schnittke (1987). As a ballet, the “Peer Gynt” is being staged since 1922 up to present day. The object of this research is musically-plastique image of Solveig. The aim of the study is to reveal specifics of musically-plastique, choreographic means, which are used to portray Solveig’s image in V. Pisarev’s production of ballet “Peer Gynt” regarding literary source. The article uses such methods as: 1) historical, allowing to place selected work into the perspective of development of ballet theatre in XXI century; 2) genre approach conditioned by specifics of means of expression used in choreographic art; 3) stylistic, used to regard given ballet in the context of choreographic art. The research results. H. Ibsen elevated the story to the level of philosophical parable about man’s freedom to choose his own path and about the price this freedom comes with. A psychological portrait of the protagonist, wanderer Peer Gynt, combines traits of both humanist and insane. The playwright creates opposition between him and Solveig, majestic in her spiritual martyrdom. According to H. Ibsen’s conception, it is Solveig, being an incarnation of the very best feminine traits, such as chastity, fidelity and kindness, who saves the prodigal soul of the protagonist. In the end of his earthly path, Peer Gynt finally finds what he has been looking for his entire life – self-sacrificial Love, saving him from the eternal suffering near his death. The libretto is written by Yu. Stanishevsky, historian of ballet. The author significantly abridges the text of the dramatic poem, reducing the number of acts from five to two. The First act consists of 4 tableaus, the Second has only two; Yu. Stanishevsky omits several situations in order to make the spectacle more dynamic. The libretto features the image of Solveig only six times: thrice in the First act and thrice in the Second. But despite sporadicity and brevity of Solveig’s presence on the stage, this image plays a leading role in the dramaturgy of the ballet, no less significant than Peer Gynt. Today the poem “Peer Gynt” by H. Ibsen is hardly imaginable without E. Grieg’s music. Its score (op. 23) consisted of 28 numbers , and it included dance intermedia and introduction to every Act; dance fragments, genre scenes, portraits, fantastic episodes and landscape sceneries. Later, the composer compiled the most interesting and self-sufficient numbers into two Suites. Conspicuous Romantic style of the score might be compared to the image of blonde-haired maiden Solveig, who betokens pure femininity. The ballet of V. Pisarev consists of 8 tableaus and 3 numbers. In order to create this ballet spectacle, its author used several types of choreographic art to reveal its idea more profoundly. V. Pisarev embodied the plot of H. Ibsen’s poem using a fusion of classical and neo-classical dance as well as a reconstruction of the folklore-scenic Norwegian dance. Ballet master draws attention to the inner world of a protagonist, who is facing a dilemma: either to remain for fix the situation, or to run away once again. Significance of Solveig’s image is emphasized by the choreographic text of the ballet, as her role becomes a plastique leit-motiv of the whole work. Choreographic lexicon of Solveig is founded upon traditional Classical dance and occasional movements of contemporary dance. Conclusions. The image of Solveig is a demanding one, both technically and psychologically as the ballerina must demonstrate advanced technique and high artistry. Solveig’s dance is plastique, sculpture-like, filled with profound psychologism and elaborated expressiveness. Solveig is one of the most powerful and iconic examples of femininity and self-sacrificial love in romantic art keeping its actuality until today.