Evolution of Legislation and Crimes Based on Sexual Identity or Orientation in Spain: A Retrospective Observational Study (2011–2021)

Respect for different sexual options and orientations prevents the occurrence of hate crimes against lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans and intersex (LGTBI) persons for this reason. Our aim was to review the legislation that protects the rights of LGTBI people and to quantify the victimization rates of hate crimes based on sexual identity and orientation. A retrospective observational study was conducted across all regions of Spain from 2011–2021. The laws on LGTBI rights in each region were identified. Hate crime victimization data on sexual identity and orientation were collected in annual rates per 100,000 inhabitants, annual percentage change and average change during the study period to assess the trend. The regulatory development of laws against discrimination against LGTBI individuals is heterogeneous across regions. Overall, in Spain there is an upward trend in the number of hate crime victimizations motivated by sexual identity or orientation. The effectiveness of data collection, thanks to better training and awareness of police forces regarding hate crimes and the processes of data cleansing and consolidation contributes to a greater visibility of hate crimes against LGTBI people.

Workplace Cyberbullying in Organizations With Criminal Intent and Subtle Means

This chapter examines the effects of workplace cyberbullying in organizations that are done with criminal intent with subtle means and explores various research reports as the remedial measures to control this social menace. It explores workplace cyberbullying as a hate crime and harassment at the workplace by the perpetrator with criminal intent. The chapter justifies with evidence gathered through research across the world, as to how workplace cyberbullying is perpetrated with subtle means. It also explores with various research studies how workplace cyberbullying is growing as a social menace. The menacing effects are categorized into psychological, social, and organizational in the chapter and are analysed as to how the perpetrator plans their modus operandi to inflict pain in the workplace.

Analysis of the Increase in Femicide Following Its Classification as a Crime in the Digital World

Femicide, or feminicide as it is known in some Latin American jurisdictions, is the murder of a woman because of her gender. National and international regulations agree that this constitutes a hate crime, rather one of habitual violence since femicide is motivated by more complex factors than those of mere physical assault. Violence has become a social problem that has changed the dynamics of the family and associated elements, leading to implications in the psychological, personal, and social spheres, among others. With this perspective, the study carried out a normative analysis of the current situation in Ecuador following the separate classification of the crime of femicide in the General Organic Penal Code (GOPC). The research drew heavily on interviews with active members of Ecuadorian legal institutions in order to build a taxonomy of inconsistencies that determine the reasons for the increase in these murders after the change to the law, at the same time as the stiffening of the state's resolve to prevent them.

Analysis of Hate Speech and Hate Crimes From A Social Psychological Perspective: A Review

Hate crime and hate speech are extreme examples of negative intergroup relations. It is thought that it would be very useful to analyze the variables that lead up to for dealing with hate speech and crimes that have many physical and psychological destructive consequences for the exposed group members. Therefore, the aim of the present study is to address some of the social psychological variables associated with hate speech and hate crimes and to suggest solutions to reduce hate speech and hate crimes in this context. For this purpose, first of all, hate speech and hate crimes were defined and various examples were presented in this direction. Later, hate crimes and hate speech were examined in terms of social identity identification, social dominance orientation, system justification, realistic and symbolic threat perception, frustration and scapegoat concepts. The relationship between hate speech and crimes of this concept has been embodied with research findings and examples from various regions in Turkey and the world. Finally, some solution suggestions have been presented by making use of this theoretical knowledge in terms of combating hate crimes and hate speeches. Keywords: Hate crime, hate speech, intergroup relations, social psychology

White College Students’ Racial Prejudice and Perceptions of Racial Hate Crime

This study investigated how racial prejudice influences White college students’ perceptions of hate crime. We also examined the moderating effects of the race of the victim of hate crimes and the absence of hate crime laws. Our sample included 581 White students in a predominantly White university located in a state that does not have a hate crime law. The study was set up in a 2 (race of the victim and the perpetrator) × 3 (level of assault) factorial design. Participants rated their perceptions of three scenarios (i.e., non-racially biased simple assault, racially biased simple assault, and racially biased aggravated assault). The dependent variables were perceptions of hate crime and willingness to report. The key independent variable was participants’ level of racial prejudice. The moderators included race of the victim in each scenario and whether participants’ state of origin has a hate crime law. Results suggest that higher levels of modern racism were associated with lower perceptions of hate crime and lower willingness to report racially biased simple and aggravated hate crime. When the victim was White, participants with higher levels of racial prejudice were more likely to perceive a hate crime and more willing to report it. The opposite was true when the victim was Black. The absence of state hate crime laws and race of victim were significant moderators. Our study suggests that racial prejudice is associated with lower perceptions of hate crime and willingness to report. Furthermore, the moderating effect of the race of victims provides insights on how racial prejudice can lead to a differential perception of hate crime, depending on whether one’s racial in-group is targeted. Our findings also highlight the importance of having state-level hate crime laws to mitigate the linkage between modern racism and perceptions of hate crime.

Formulating the legislative structure of a hate crime

While hate crime legislation is well established in England and Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland, Ireland has failed to address the issue of hate crime on a statutory basis. Law reform processes are currently underway across these jurisdictions, and this article seeks to explore a fundamental question in this context, that is, the relative merits of various approaches to structuring hate crime legislation.

Protecting difference: A discussion on transphobic and homophobic hate crime in the Irish context

Ireland has been applauded internationally for its legislative progress in supporting the rights of (lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender) LGBT+ citizens. Yet much of the positive change within the social and political context of sexuality and gender expression has been achieved by campaign groups, operating outside government boundaries. Notwithstanding these advances, LGBT+ people continue to face discrimination, abuse and violence. Concerns surrounding acts of aggression towards transgender and gay people call for an ongoing dialogue between legislators, policymakers, and practitioners to explore ways in which safety can be ensured. This article draws from an emerging body of scholarship and research to question the effectiveness of current social policy and legislation in Ireland. It offers a discourse on hate crime related to transphobia and homophobia, while challenging the existing political thinking. Multi-agency collaborative working is suggested as key to fostering solutions together with changes in legal paradigms, and the continued formation of policy aimed at safeguarding the LGBT+ community.

US reforms on sexual harassment will be patchy

Significance It is illegal for an employer to allow sexual harassment in the workplace, and federal and state legislatures face rising pressure to curb it in workplaces, colleges and their own chambers. Social media platforms, the main location of sexual harassment, are failing to stop it. Impacts The 'metaverse' of virtual and augmented reality will have potential to escalate online sexual harassment to new levels. Addressing online sexual harassment under the same criminal laws as physical sexual assault, or as a hate crime, is a remote prospect. Courts will expand the definition of where intent to threaten someone encroaches on online free speech.

A continuum of hate: delimiting the field of hate studies

A relatively nascent discipline, the field of hate studies has been explored and theorised from a multiplicity of disciplinary contexts. However, the field is ill-defined, and the relationship between hate crime and other related concepts unexplored. Here, we consider the range of phenomena which might fall within or without the field of hate studies, initiating a discussion of the boundaries of the field. We signal both the continuities and discontinuities among and between an array of strategies intended to sort and maintain hierarchical relationships, with the purpose of provoking scholars in the field of hate studies to reflect on its scope.