Area, isolation and climate explain the diversity of mammals on islands worldwide

Insular biodiversity is expected to be regulated differently than continental biota, but their determinants remain to be quantified at a global scale. We evaluated the importance of physical, environmental and historical factors on mammal richness and endemism across 5592 islands worldwide. We fitted generalized linear and mixed models to accommodate variation among biogeographic realms and performed analyses separately for bats and non-volants. Richness on islands ranged from one to 234 species, with up to 177 single island endemics. Diversity patterns were most consistently influenced by the islands’ physical characteristics. Area positively affected mammal diversity, in particular the number of non-volant endemics. Island isolation, both current and past, was associated with lower richness but greater endemism. Flight capacity modified the relative importance of past versus current isolation, with bats responding more strongly to current and non-volant mammals to past isolation. Biodiversity relationships with environmental factors were idiosyncratic, with a tendency for greater effects sizes with endemism than richness. The historical climatic change was positively associated with endemism. In line with theory, we found that area and isolation were among the strongest drivers of mammalian biodiversity. Our results support the importance of past conditions on current patterns, particularly of non-volant species.

The island rule and its application to multiple plant traits

<p>The Island Rule refers to a continuum of body size changes where large mainland species evolve to become smaller and small species evolve to become larger on islands. Previous work focuses almost solely on animals, with virtually no previous tests of its predictions on plants. I tested for (1) reduced floral size diversity on islands, a logical corollary of the island rule and (2) evidence of the Island Rule in plant stature, leaf size and petiole length. Endemic island plants originated from small islands surrounding New Zealand; Antipodes, Auckland, Bounty, Campbell, Chatham, Kermadec, Lord Howe, Macquarie, Norfolk, Snares, Stewart and the Three Kings. I compared the morphology of 65 island endemics and their closest ‘mainland’ relative. Species pairs were identified. Differences between archipelagos located at various latitudes were also assessed. Floral sizes were reduced on islands relative to the ‘mainland’, consistent with predictions of the Island Rule. Plant stature, leaf size and petiole length conformed to the Island Rule, with smaller plants increasing in size, and larger plants decreasing in size. Results indicate that the conceptual umbrella of the Island Rule can be expanded to plants, accelerating understanding of how plant traits evolve on isolated islands.</p>

The island rule and its application to multiple plant traits

<p>The Island Rule refers to a continuum of body size changes where large mainland species evolve to become smaller and small species evolve to become larger on islands. Previous work focuses almost solely on animals, with virtually no previous tests of its predictions on plants. I tested for (1) reduced floral size diversity on islands, a logical corollary of the island rule and (2) evidence of the Island Rule in plant stature, leaf size and petiole length. Endemic island plants originated from small islands surrounding New Zealand; Antipodes, Auckland, Bounty, Campbell, Chatham, Kermadec, Lord Howe, Macquarie, Norfolk, Snares, Stewart and the Three Kings. I compared the morphology of 65 island endemics and their closest ‘mainland’ relative. Species pairs were identified. Differences between archipelagos located at various latitudes were also assessed. Floral sizes were reduced on islands relative to the ‘mainland’, consistent with predictions of the Island Rule. Plant stature, leaf size and petiole length conformed to the Island Rule, with smaller plants increasing in size, and larger plants decreasing in size. Results indicate that the conceptual umbrella of the Island Rule can be expanded to plants, accelerating understanding of how plant traits evolve on isolated islands.</p>

Biodiversity of Heteroptera in Puerto Rico: Part III. Conspectus of Pentatomomorpha: Aradoidea, Pyrrhocoroidea, Coreoidea, and Concluding Notes on Endemism and Biogeography

Superfamilies Aradoidea, Pyrrhocoroidea and Coreoidea from Puerto Rico are discussed as part of an updated account of Hemiptera: Heteroptera. In this final part, we present 48 species belonging to the three superfamilies, with six families known from Puerto Rico: Aradoidea: Aradidae (12); Pyrrhocoroidea: Largidae (1) and Pyrrhocoridae (3); and Coreoidea: Alydidae (5), Rhopalidae (7) and Coreidae (20). Taxonomic accounts presented here include synonymies, known distribution, lists of host plants and a listing of examined specimens. Taxonomical keys are also provided for the identification of all taxa included. Color plates for 43 species are included. Five species are new records for Puerto Rico: Brachyrhynchus membranaceus (F.), Leptoglossus confusus Alayo and Grillo, Eubule scutellata (Westwood), Mamurius cubanus Barber and Bruner, and Merocoris typhaeus (F.). Most species are widespread in the West Indies, with the largest number of island endemics in the Aradidae. A discussion of the origins, biodiversity, biogeography, and endemism of all Puerto Rican Pentatomomorpha is presented.

The two extinctions of the Carolina Parakeet Conuropsis carolinensis

Summary Due to climate change and habitat conversion, estimates of the resulting levels of species extinction over the next century are alarming. Devising conservation solutions will require many different approaches, including examining the extinction processes of recently extinct species. Given that parrots are one of the most threatened groups of birds, information regarding parrot extinction is pressing. While most recent parrot extinctions have been island endemics, the Carolina Parakeet Conuropsis carolinensis had an 18th-century range covering nearly half of the present-day United States, yet mostly disappeared by the end of the 19th century. Despite a great deal of speculation, the major cause of its extinction remains unknown. Establishing the date when a species went extinct is one of the first steps in determining what caused their extinction. While there have been estimates of their extinction date, these analyses used a limited dataset and did not include observational data. We used a recently published, extensive dataset of Carolina Parakeet specimens and observations combined with a Bayesian extinction estimating model to determine the most likely extinction dates. By considering each of the two subspecies independently, we found that they went extinct ˜30 years apart: the western subspecies C. c. ludovicianus going extinct around 1914 and the eastern subspecies C. c. carolinensis either in the late 1930s or mid-1940s. Had we only considered all observations together, this pattern would have been obscured, possibly missing a major clue in solving the mystery of the parakeet’s extinction. Since the Carolina Parakeet was a wide-ranging species that went extinct during a period of rapid agricultural and industrial expansion, conditions that mirror those occurring in many parts of the world where parrot diversity is highest, any progress we make in unraveling the mystery of their disappearance may be vital to modern conservation efforts.

Extensive introgression and mosaic genomes of Mediterranean endemic lizards

The Mediterranean basin is a hotspot of biodiversity, fuelled by climatic oscillation and geological change over the past 20 million years. Wall lizards of the genus Podarcis are among the most abundant, diverse, and conspicuous Mediterranean fauna. Here, we unravel the remarkably entangled evolutionary history of wall lizards by sequencing genomes of 34 major lineages covering 26 species. We demonstrate an early (>11 MYA) separation into two clades centred on the Iberian and Balkan Peninsulas, and two clades of Mediterranean island endemics. Diversification within these clades was pronounced between 6.5–4.0 MYA, a period spanning the Messinian Salinity Crisis, during which the Mediterranean Sea nearly dried up before rapidly refilling. However, genetic exchange between lineages has been a pervasive feature throughout the entire history of wall lizards. This has resulted in a highly reticulated pattern of evolution across the group, characterised by mosaic genomes with major contributions from two or more parental taxa. These hybrid lineages gave rise to several of the extant species that are endemic to Mediterranean islands. The mosaic genomes of island endemics may have promoted their extraordinary adaptability and striking diversity in body size, shape and colouration, which have puzzled biologists for centuries.

The illegal hunting and exploitation of porcupines for meat and medicine in Indonesia

Indonesia is home to five species of porcupines, three of which are island endemics. While all five species are currently assessed as Least Concern by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, impacts of harvest and trade have not been factored in. To gain a fuller understanding of the porcupine trade in Indonesia, this study examines seizure data of porcupines, their parts and derivatives from January 2013 to June 2020. A total of 39 incidents were obtained amounting to an estimated 452 porcupines. Various confiscated commodities revealed porcupines are traded for consumption, traditional medicine, trophies/charms as well as for privately run wildlife/recreational parks. Targeted hunting of porcupines for commercial international trade was also evident. Porcupines are also persecuted as agricultural pests and wildlife traffickers take advantage of such situations to procure animals for trade. What clearly emerges from this study is that porcupines are being illegally hunted and exploited throughout their range in Indonesia facilitated by poor enforcement and legislative weakness. Porcupines are in decline due to habitat loss, retaliatory killings and uncontrolled poaching. It is therefore crucial that effective conservation measures are taken sooner rather than later to prevent further depletion of these species. Including all porcupines as protected species under Indonesian wildlife laws and listing them in Appendix II of CITES to improve regulation, enforcement and monitoring of domestic and international trade trends involving porcupines in Indonesia would contribute significantly towards this end.

Monograph of the Staphylinidae of Crete (Greece). Part II. Descriptions of new species (Insecta: Coleoptera)

One genus, Cretotyphlus Assing gen. nov., and 48 species of Staphylinidae from the Greek island Crete, 47 of them island endemics or even locally endemic, are described and illustrated: Amischa cretica Assing spec. nov., Atheta (Anopleta) digitalis Assing spec. nov., Hydrosmecta insularum Assing spec. nov. (Crete, Ikaria, Lesbos, Samothraki), Geostiba (Sipalotricha) inexsecta Assing spec. nov. (region to the east-southeast of Rethimno), Cousya candica Assing spec. nov. (East Crete: Dikti), Oxypoda (Bessopora) bimontium Assing spec. nov. (Dikti, Psiloritis), O. (Mycetodrepa) retunsa Assing spec. nov., and Typhlocyptus creticus Assing spec. nov. of the Aleocharinae; Geomitopsis cretica Assing spec. nov. (East Crete) of the Osoriinae; Allotyphlus (Moreotyphlus) foedatus Assing spec. nov. (West Crete), Kenotyphlus virgatus Assing spec. nov. (West Crete), Cretotyphlus hamatus Assing spec. nov. (East Crete: Dikti), C. chanianus Assing spec. nov. (region to the southwest of Chania), and C. idanus Assing spec. nov. (Central Crete: Psiloritis) of the Leptotyphlinae; Pseudobium creticum Assing spec. nov. of the Paederinae; Gabrius candicus Assing spec. nov. Of the Staphylininae; Cephennium arcuatum Assing spec. nov. (East Crete), C. thripticum Assing spec. nov. (East Crete: Thripti), C. selinonum Assing spec. nov. (Southwest Crete), C. meybohmi Assing spec. nov. (West Crete), C. idanum Assing spec. nov. (Central Crete: Psiloritis), C. sinuosum Assing spec. nov. (East Crete), C. fortespinosum Assing spec. nov. (East Crete), C. hamulatum Assing spec. nov. (East Crete: Dikti), C. curvatum Assing spec. nov. (East Crete), C. selenanum Assing spec. nov. (East Crete: Selena Oros), C. latius Assing spec. nov. (Central Crete: Psiloritis), C. chanianum Assing spec. nov. (West Crete), Euconnus (Tetramelus) zakrius Meybohm spec. nov. (East Crete), Stenichnus (Stenichnus) brachati Meybohm spec. nov., S. (S.) orientalis Meybohm spec. nov. (East Crete), S. (S.) aegialioides Meybohm spec. nov., Leptomastax cretica Meybohm spec. nov., and L. thriptica Meybohm spec. nov. (East Crete: Thripti) of the Scydmaeninae; Afropselaphus doernfeldae Brachat spec. nov. (West Crete: Lefka Ori), A. assingi Brachat spec. nov. (West Crete: Lefka Ori), A. diktianus Brachat spec. nov. (East Crete: Dikti), A. thripticus Brachat spec. nov. (East Crete: Thripti), Amauronyx chanianus Brachat spec. nov. (West Crete), A. occidens Brachat spec. nov. (West Crete), A. askifouicus Brachat spec. nov. (West Crete), Bryaxis meybohmianus Brachat spec. nov. (West Crete), Bythinus creticus Brachat spec. nov. (Central Crete: Psiloritis), Euplectus assingi Brachat spec. nov. (Crete), Faronus meybohmi Brachat spec. nov. (West Crete: Lefka Ori), F. lefkamontium Brachat spec. nov. (West Crete: Lefka Ori), F. albimontium Brachat spec. nov. (West Crete: Lefka Ori), and Tychus chanianus Brachat spec. nov. (West Crete) of the Pselaphinae; Sepedophilus creticus Schülke spec. nov. of the Tachyporinae. Keys to the species of Cephennium Müller & Kunze, 1822 and Stenichnus Thomson, 1859 of Crete are provided. A lectotype is designated for Amauronyx paganettii Blattný & Blattný, 1916. Taxonomic acts Cretotyphlus Assing gen. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:FD86523B-3B04-43D4-BD1B-40BC18EAD15FAmischa cretica Assing spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:1DBCBA49-3E09-4665-97CC-4641BB816F4EAtheta digitalis Assing spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:E1F1F8FC-708F-4C1B-AF02-5A83EC6E5A0DHydrosmecta insularum Assing spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:A5DC3A8F-AC05-46F0-B3D0-A97CF126AB8FGeostiba inexsecta Assing spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:35864FAC-C639-4F3A-B0CA-AAB83AEBFD36Cousya candica Assing spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:44B00621-3DA4-462B-9491-AD4B45476F2EOxypoda bimontium Assing spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:C38F6606-DE88-4E86-B1E8-AB0921804654Oxypoda retunsa Assing spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:D801AADC-CC6A-4E15-8988-BE8CCEA48013Typhlocyptus creticus Assing spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:2F3A6D48-5EA3-417D-9DB3-F8E0139432F6Geomitopsis cretica Assing spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:1D3E575E-A726-422D-BA91-AF9B98BCA2BDAllotyphlus foedatus Assing spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:42A89E7C-F33A-43C8-A301-296D27AD2BBFKenotyphlus virgatus Assing spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:1967E04F-CD26-4976-928F-B9A195790332Cretotyphlus hamatus Assing spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:EBE1B406-3145-411C-883D-A9499AEF52BACretotyphlus chanianus Assing spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:1D048CF4-D0DE-4839-869F-4D96B269F25CCretotyphlus idanus Assing spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:993DEFB4-903E-4367-96DD-6F4D8F0DE42FPseudobium creticum Assing spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:98EA1ABE-EA17-4F90-A7BF-6069D9FDF481Gabrius candicus Assing spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:4FAC0FC1-20F7-4DC4-BAA9-FBC4DDF3175DCephennium arcuatum Assing spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:7A3212BC-0311-49F7-A2AB-C529B6CD42A9Cephennium thripticum Assing spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:6681B4E6-3602-47F6-82BF-C1C9FD0E6A45Cephennium selinonum Assing spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:5C1D00CC-C8A3-4043-92A9-773137CD17CBCephennium meybohmi Assing spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:BDCAA375-E045-47F7-AC38-6812249B9A7CCephennium idanum Assing spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:C7F685DD-32CC-4AF7-AA4E-4B3096D86B13Cephennium sinuosum Assing spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:C89E57D1-33EB-4693-BF85-27EAC289A064Cephennium fortespinosum Assing spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:C84F5038-F12C-48CC-9ED7-8DBE6BAE1D5CCephennium hamulatum Assing spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:FA4D9AB5-DAA3-4DE7-8064-5B98210F93D0Cephennium curvatum Assing spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:73B78F2A-4907-4334-B475-A59C7CD81063Cephennium selenanum Assing spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:E5B87D2D-9402-43F9-82E3-1DEF6D709DF1Cephennium latius Assing spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:8B3A0458-1D50-4551-BED6-D307750DD522Cephennium chanianum Assing spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:0C990A58-8107-4B07-87D5-FE0541CD444Euconnus zakrius Meybohm spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:506C3D6D-FD24-4484-813D-F00E761EFECBStenichnus brachati Meybohm spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:0D694A13-AB82-4398-AC2A-2E4D39B515FBStenichnus orientalis Meybohm spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:06558FCA-3A62-4019-BFB7-EF06448C1956Stenichnus aegialioides Meybohm spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:712D1FB1-7AB4-4C27-8CB2-05E07E8435FELeptomastax cretica Meybohm spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:444B05D8-E8CB-4F7F-A9A5-1695EB36C08ALeptomastax thriptica Meybohm spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:5EA83082-7F64-4122-852C-AECB11BF6D01Afropselaphus doernfeldae Brachat spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:96DFC249-A208-44CE-BC83-4BB829F6966BAfropselaphus assingi Brachat spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:A29A770B-1104-4BB0-BA7E-ADA1CB04D204Afropselaphus diktianus Brachat spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:AF308CB8-7539-4626-8E2CDD2A7E9B5052Afropselaphus thripticus Brachat spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:E38E8556-0E8F-4C12-BD99-3759694D8E82 Amauronyx chanianus Brachat spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:833A774F-4626-4CC8-8BE0-7B857E33EC43Amauronyx occidens Brachat spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:0545A123-B114-4014-A05D-2C5EF565D5D9Amauronyx askifouicus Brachat spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:7CE4D2AD-8F1E-408A-9112-5301AC6CC6AEBryaxis meybohmianus Brachat spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:FE6B56D3-E7A1-4F55-9587-ABC42768A1ACBythinus creticus Brachat spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:5A5439A5-BB04-41D0-897E-3769BA046964Euplectus assingi Brachat spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:B653CFCD-0DF4-4AC8-8BDC-64FCD2FB9599Faronus meybohmi Brachat spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:B80022A7-78AC-45E9-94A6-B3A31657DCF7Faronus lefkamontium Brachat spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:B5C36287-54F6-4CF0-B2BF-E3D8E4AF1029Faronus albimontium Brachat spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:9E7893E5-D3A1-4387-B179-AA51AB793FEDTychus chanianus Brachat spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:85D07E45-AEE2-4D13-9C26-18B353D1AD15Sepedophilus creticus Schülke spec. nov. – urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:F2B971D6-B222-4823-A1BB-DF4B816F0775