PUBLIC EXPENDITURE ON HEALTHCARE IN POLAND (2010-2020)

Both expenditure on healthcare and the functioning of the entire healthcare system in Poland stir up considerable controversy and are often discussed in the media. Hospital debts, the low quality of services, and the low availability of specialist medical services form the basis for the discussion of the effectiveness of the healthcare system. Statistical data are also bleak. Total health expenditure in Poland in 2019 amounted to 6.3% of GDP (estimated expenditure), whereas the average for health expenditure in the OECD countries was 8.8%. Therefore, Poland is below the average, and is placed last but four in the ranking (stat.oecd.org). The aim of this article is the presentation of public expenditure on healthcare in Poland from 2010 to 2020. In order to achieve this, the following research methods were used: a critical analysis of the literature, an analysis of statistical data, and - to make the research more transparent and the research results clearer - a tabular method was used. Also, widely accepted measurements were used, such as absolute values in domestic and international currencies, values per capita, and values in relation to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP).oduct (GDP).

Międzynarodowe waluty safe haven – bezpieczna przystań w czasie kryzysu

Purpose – The aim is to assess the importance of the most significant international currencies as safe haven currencies in the context of their position in the global economy in the light of the worldwide literature. Research method – The basic research methods used in the article are the study of world literature and the analysis of statistical data delivered by the European Central Bank and the Bank for International Settlements. Results – It is widely believed that the most important international currencies, the US dollar, the euro and the yen, also act as a safe haven. The conclusions from the analysis show that not all international currencies are equally considered as a safe haven. The most important safe haven currencies are the Swiss franc, the yen, the US dollar and, to a lesser extent, the euro. Performing the function of an international currency by the domestic currency predisposes it to be a safe haven, but this does not mean that it cannot be a currency that does not belong to the group of the most important international currencies. Implications /recommendations – The analysis of the significance of international currencies used as a safe haven in times of financial and economic crises, presented in the article, shows the importance of the problem and implies the need to undertake further research into this issue in the context of the benefits of using safe haven currencies by investors operating in the global economy.

From Reserve Currencies to Reserves of Critical Goods: Designing a New BRICS International Currency

Currently, there is a need for reform of global monetary circulation and credit, which in a sense has stalled. The key is to restore the connection between monetary circulation and real production. In the first part of this study, I provide a brief analysis of the catastrophic consequences that the current design of reserve currencies has led to for the world economy. At the same time, the transition from the dollar to other reserve currencies operating on the same principles, the ethos of which is now being actively promoted in the West, will not improve the situation. In the second part, I demonstrate the efforts being made to de-dollarize settlements by both the BRICS, the EU, and the EAEU countries. The third part shows the successful historical experience of the transferable ruble as an international currency that functioned in 1960-1980 on non-discriminatory principles within the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA). In the fourth part, the international currencies already functioning in the world are described, as well as some existing proposals for the introduction of new international currencies. I argue that reliable physical access to reserves in basic food and medicines in controlled warehouses is becoming a matter of great importance. The transition is necessary from the ideology of reserve currencies to the ideology of reserves of critical goods. Such an incentive of a new BRICS currency on the demand side will be food and healthcare security. On the supply side, for all states that have established a currency, there should be a clear vision of how they can develop their exports using this currency. In order to secure currency, such goods must be pledged to international BRICS warehouses that correspond to the main export directions of the project countries and/or are critical for their import. These are basic foods such as grains, then medicines, fuel and energy resources, and metals.

Currency Democracy: The Theory of Organic Global Monetary - Summary

We proposed a model of democratic and symmetrical international monetary without the need for economic integration. The model name is “organic global monetary” (OGM) or simply called “organic model”. The organic model is an international currency system developed jointly by all countries in the world, or member countries and is part of their respective national currencies. The organic model is natural, elegant, and very comprehensive, provides international currencies “free of charge” to all member countries, does not require foreign exchange reserves, eliminates exchange rate cost and fluctuations, makes “zero-depreciated” international currencies, eliminates foreign debt dependence, abolishing trade wars at all levels, releases countries from the middle-income trap (MIT); eliminates global imbalances, and completely eliminate currency crisis.

Units of Measure

The Units of Measure chapter of the 11th edition of the AMA Manual of Style begins with guidance on the International System of Units (SI) and includes an updated SI conversion table (laboratory reference ranges are no longer included because of differences among laboratories worldwide). Conventions related to format, style, and punctuation of units (eg, exponents, plurals, subject-verb agreement, spelling out units of measure, abbreviations, punctuation, hyphens, and spacing) and capitalization and expression of products and quotients of unit symbols are addressed. A detailed description of use of numerals with units is included, as are specific discussions of units of length, area, volume, and mass; temperature; time; visual acuity; pressure; pH; solutions and concentrations; energy; drug doses; laboratory values; and radiation. The list of international currencies and symbols has been updated and expanded. A change in policy to include a space after the number and before degrees Celsius and degrees Fahrenheit follows SI standards.

Potential Competitiveness of Pound in Post-Crisis World

The author discusses the factors and trends that determine the British pound’s competitive position in various segments of the international monetary system. Despite the devaluation effect caused by Brexit, the pound is still the most expensive of the key international currencies. On the one hand, this is due to the fact that the ratio of the British pound monetary aggregate M1 to GDP is significantly lower than that of other major economies – issuers of reserve currencies. Thus, the pound has the lowest monetary risk of depreciation compared to other currencies. On the other hand, the international significance of the pound sterling is explained by the ability of British economy to service the huge external debt, which in relative size is the largest among the leading economies of the world. This state of affairs is achieved due to the fact that London is home to the largest number of foreign companies in the world that carry out operations in various Eurocurrencies, acting simultaneously as the main issuers of external debt obligations. The attractiveness of the pound sterling as the currency for the nomination of international debt instruments is due to the less risky currency profile of the pound sterling, as well as the relatively higher profitability of debt instruments. After the global financial crisis, the share of the pound in the official reserves of other countries and in the implementation of international payments is gradually increasing. The author comes to the conclusion about the possible strengthening of the future role of the pound as a stabilizer of international economic relations against the backdrop of an increase in unpredictable events taking place on both sides of the Atlantic such as fiscal crisis of the euro area, Brexit, the growing political tension in the USA, COVID 19. These events are increasingly threatening leading positions of the US dollar and the euro as the key international currencies.