instrumental learning
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2022 ◽  
Author(s):  
Chamith Halahhakoon ◽  
Alexander Kaltenboeck ◽  
Marieke Martens ◽  
John G Geddes ◽  
Catherine J Harmer ◽  
...  

Background: Dopamine D2-like receptor agonists show promise as treatments for depression. They are thought to act by altering how individuals learn from rewarding experiences. However, the nature of these reward learning alterations, and the mechanisms by which they are produced is not clear. Reinforcement learning accounts describe three distinct processes that may produce similar changes in reward learning behaviour; increased reward sensitivity, increased inverse decision temperature and decreased value decay. As these processes produce equivalent effects on behaviour, arbitrating between them requires measurement of how expectations and prediction errors are altered. In the present study, we characterised the behavioural effects of a sustained 2-week course of the D2/3/4 receptor agonist pramipexole on reward learning and used fMRI measures of expectation and prediction error to assess which of these three mechanistic processes were responsible for the behavioural effects. Methods: 40 healthy volunteers (Age: 18-43, 50% female) were randomly allocated to receive either two weeks of pramipexole (titrated to 1mg/day) or placebo in a double-blind, between subject design. Participants completed a probabilistic instrumental learning task, in which stimuli were associated with either rewards or losses, before the pharmacological intervention and twice between days 12-15 of the intervention (once with and once without fMRI). Both asymptotic choice accuracy, and a reinforcement learning model, were used to assess reward learning. Results: Behaviourally, pramipexole specifically increased choice accuracy in the reward condition, with no effect in the loss condition. Pramipexole increased the BOLD response in the orbital frontal cortex during the expectation of win trials but decreased the BOLD response to reward prediction errors in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex. This pattern of results indicates that pramipexole enhances choice accuracy by reducing the decay of estimated values during reward learning. Conclusions: The D2-like receptor agonist pramipexole enhances reward learning by preserving learned values. This is a plausible candidate mechanism for pramipexoles observed anti-depressant effect.


2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Marco Mina

In this paper the topic of memory (linked to many fields of investigation, in addition to the music one) is faced by a particular interpretative perspective that places it halfway between psycho-pedagogical research and a more specific path of investigation of musical-analytical-formal type, with characteristics, I would say, holistic. Starting from this “thematic intersection” (psycho-pedagogical and formal-analytical), the present study tries to focus on an aspect that is not completely unknown about the subject of memory (at least not in the specific literature currently available, but perhaps still not specifically valued in a pedagogical way) thus determining the identification of all the potential that memory possesses, the characteristics, the formative aspects. Հոդվածում հիշողության թեման (հետազոտությունների բազմաթիվ ոլորտների, այդ թվում՝ երաժշտության հետ առնչությամբ) առերեսվում է մեկնաբանական որոշակի հեռանկարով, որն այն տեղավորում է հոգեբանական-մանկավարժական ուսումնասիրությունների և երաժշտական-վերլուծական-ձևային տեսակի ավելի մասնավոր հետազոտության մեջտեղում, ես կասեի՝ ամբողջական բնութագրով։ Սկսած իր թեմատիկ «խաչաձևումից» (հոգեբանական-մանկավաժական և ձևային-վերլուծական)՝ հոդվածը փորձում է անդրադառնալ մի հանգամանքի, որը ամբողջապես անծանոթ չէ հիշողության թեմատիկային (առնվազն ներկայում գոյություն ունեցող որոշակի գրականությանը, որը հավանաբար դեռևս դիտարկված չէ մանկավարժական տեսանկյունից), ինչպես նաև սահմանել հիշողության բովանդակության նույնականացումները, բնութագրիչները, ձևային դիտանկյունները։


2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Max Berg ◽  
Matthias Feldmann ◽  
Tobias Kube

Rumination is a widely recognized cognitive deviation in depression. An integrative view that combines clinical findings on rumination with theories of mental simulation and cognitive problem-solving could help explain the development and maintenance of rumination in a computationally and biologically plausible framework. In this review, we connect insights from neuroscience and computational psychiatry to elucidate rumination as repetitive but unsuccessful attempts at mental problem-solving. Appealing to a predictive processing account, we suggest that problem-solving is based on an algorithm that generates candidate behavior (policy primitives for problem solutions) using a Bayesian sampling approach, evaluates resulting policies for action, and then engages in instrumental learning to reduce prediction errors. We present evidence suggesting that this problem-solving algorithm is distorted in depression: Specifically, depressive rumination is regarded as excessive Bayesian sampling of candidates that is associated with high prediction errors without activation of the successive steps (policy evaluation, instrumental learning) of the algorithm. Thus, prediction errors cannot be decreased, and excessive resampling of the same problems occur. This then leads to reduced precision weighting attributed to external, “online” stimuli, low behavioral output and high opportunity costs due to the time-consuming nature of the sampling process itself. We review different computational reasons that make the proposed Bayesian sampling algorithm vulnerable to a ruminative „halting problem”. We also identify neurophysiological correlates of these deviations in pathological connectivity patterns of different brain networks. We conclude by suggesting future directions for research into behavioral and neurophysiological features of the model and point to clinical implications.


2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
◽  
Judith Bird

<p>It has been suggested that the response to novelty and impulsivity predict the latency to acquisition and maintenance of drug self-administration, respectively. The aim of this thesis was to examine the relationship between these two traits and (1) the latency to acquisition and (2) maintenance (drug seeking) of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) self–administration. Impulsivity, measured as premature responding on the 5-choice serial reaction time task (5-CSRTT), and novelty seeking, measured as the locomotor response in a novel environment, were measured prior to self-administration. Due to characteristics of the rat strain and test equipment the 5-CSRTT was configurated in the first part of this study and modified from the standard version. Following training in this task animals were implanted with a siliastic catheter and were subsequently screened for their response to a novel environment prior to MDMA self-administration. Latency to acquisition was determined as the number of test sessions required to self-administer an initial criterion of 90 infusions of 1.0 mg/kg/infusion as well as an additional 150 infusions of 0.5 mg/kg/infusion MDMA. For some rats, the ability of MDMA (0, 5.0 or 10.0 mg/kg, IP) to produce drug seeking was subsequently measured and for others, impulsivity was again measured following self-administration. Novelty seeking predicted cocaine self-administration but was not significantly correlated with either the acquisition or drug-seeking measures of MDMA self-administration. Impulsivity was not significantly correlated with the latency to acquire self-administration of MDMA but was significantly and positively correlated with the magnitude of MDMA produced drug-seeking. Furthermore, MDMA self-administration produced a number of notable, but transient, deficits in the 5-CSRTT; there was an increase in omission rate and a delayed increase in premature responses in particular. These findings suggest that impulsivity, but not sensation seeking, might be a risk factor for the development of compulsive drug-seeking following withdrawal from MDMA self-administration. A surprising finding from this study was a high acquisition rate amongst rats that acquired the 5-CSRTT prior to self-administration. This difference was examined in a separate set of experiments. This effect could not be explained by an effect of handling, food restriction, or exposure to sweetened condensed milk and might possibly be due to differences in instrumental learning.</p>


2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
◽  
Judith Bird

<p>It has been suggested that the response to novelty and impulsivity predict the latency to acquisition and maintenance of drug self-administration, respectively. The aim of this thesis was to examine the relationship between these two traits and (1) the latency to acquisition and (2) maintenance (drug seeking) of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) self–administration. Impulsivity, measured as premature responding on the 5-choice serial reaction time task (5-CSRTT), and novelty seeking, measured as the locomotor response in a novel environment, were measured prior to self-administration. Due to characteristics of the rat strain and test equipment the 5-CSRTT was configurated in the first part of this study and modified from the standard version. Following training in this task animals were implanted with a siliastic catheter and were subsequently screened for their response to a novel environment prior to MDMA self-administration. Latency to acquisition was determined as the number of test sessions required to self-administer an initial criterion of 90 infusions of 1.0 mg/kg/infusion as well as an additional 150 infusions of 0.5 mg/kg/infusion MDMA. For some rats, the ability of MDMA (0, 5.0 or 10.0 mg/kg, IP) to produce drug seeking was subsequently measured and for others, impulsivity was again measured following self-administration. Novelty seeking predicted cocaine self-administration but was not significantly correlated with either the acquisition or drug-seeking measures of MDMA self-administration. Impulsivity was not significantly correlated with the latency to acquire self-administration of MDMA but was significantly and positively correlated with the magnitude of MDMA produced drug-seeking. Furthermore, MDMA self-administration produced a number of notable, but transient, deficits in the 5-CSRTT; there was an increase in omission rate and a delayed increase in premature responses in particular. These findings suggest that impulsivity, but not sensation seeking, might be a risk factor for the development of compulsive drug-seeking following withdrawal from MDMA self-administration. A surprising finding from this study was a high acquisition rate amongst rats that acquired the 5-CSRTT prior to self-administration. This difference was examined in a separate set of experiments. This effect could not be explained by an effect of handling, food restriction, or exposure to sweetened condensed milk and might possibly be due to differences in instrumental learning.</p>


2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Poppy Watson ◽  
Thomas Edward Gladwin ◽  
sanne de wit

To investigate the balance between goal-directed and habitual control in controlled experimental settings, animal researchers developed the outcome-revaluation paradigm. The translation of this paradigm to humans has yielded interesting insights but proven to be challenging. We present a novel, symmetrical outcome-revaluation task in which outcomes are both devalued and upvalued to reveal the disadvantage and advantage of habit formation. During the instrumental learning phase, participants learned to respond (Go) to certain stimuli to collect valuable outcomes (and points) while refraining to respond (NoGo) to stimuli signalling not-valuable outcomes. Half of the stimuli were short-trained, while the other half were long-trained. Subsequently, in the test phase, the signalled outcomes were either value-congruent with training (still-valuable and still-not-valuable), or incongruent (devalued and upvalued). The change in outcome value on incongruent trials meant that participants had to flexibly adjust their behaviour. At the end of the training phase, participants completed the self-report behavioural automaticity index – providing an automaticity score for each stimulus-response association. We conducted two experiments using this task, that both provided evidence for stimulus-driven habits as reflected in better performance on congruent than on incongruent test trials. While self-reported automaticity increased with longer training, behavioural flexibility was intact. After extended training (Experiment 2), higher levels of self-reported automaticity when responding to stimuli signalling valuable outcomes was related to more ‘slips of action’ when the associated outcome was subsequently devalued. We conclude that the symmetrical outcome revaluation task provides a promising paradigm for the experimental investigation of habits in humans.


2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Sarah Schw&oumlbel ◽  
Dimitrije Markovic ◽  
Michael N Smolka ◽  
Stefan Kiebel

In cognitive neuroscience and psychology, reaction times are an important behavioral measure. However, in instrumental learning and goal-directed decision making experiments, findings often rely only on choice probabilities from a value-based model, instead of reaction times. Recent advancements have shown that it is possible to connect value-based decision models with reaction time models, for example in a joint reinforcement learning and diffusion decision model. We propose a novel joint model of both choices and reaction times by combining a mechanistic account of Bayesian sequential decision making with a sampling procedure. Specifically, we use a recent context-specific Bayesian forward planning model which we extend by an MCMC sampler to obtain both choices and reaction times. We show that we can explain and reproduce well-known experimental findings in value based-decision making as well as classical inhibition and switching tasks. First, we use the proposed model to explain how instrumental learning and automatized behavior result in decreased reaction times and improved accuracy. Second, we reproduce classical results in the Eriksen flanker task. Third, we reproduce established findings in task switching. These findings show that the proposed joint behavioral model may describe common underlying processes in all these types of decision making paradigms.


2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Gabriele Chierchia ◽  
Magdaléna Soukupová ◽  
Emma J. Kilford ◽  
Cait Griffin ◽  
Jovita Tung Leung ◽  
...  

Confirmation bias, the widespread tendency to favour evidence that confirms rather than disconfirms one’s prior beliefs and choices, has been shown to play a role in the way decisions are shaped by rewards and punishment, known as confirmatory reinforcement learning. Given that exploratory tendencies change during adolescence, we investigated whether confirmatory learning also changes during this age. In an instrumental learning task, participants aged 11-33 years attempted to maximize monetary rewards by repeatedly sampling different pairs of novel options, which varied in their reward/punishment probabilities. Our results showed an age-related increase in accuracy with as long as learning contingencies remained stable across trials, but less so when they reversed halfway through the trials. Across participants, there was a greater tendency to stay with an option that had delivered a reward on the immediately preceding trial, more than to switch away from an option that had just delivered a punishment, and this behavioural asymmetry also increased with age. Younger participants spent more time assessing the outcomes of their choices than did older participants, suggesting that their learning inefficiencies were not due to reduced attention. At a computational level, these decision patterns were best described by a model that assumes that people learn very little from disconfirmatory evidence and that they vary in the extent to which they learn from confirmatory evidence. Such confirmatory learning rates also increased with age. Overall, these findings are consistent with the hypothesis that a discrepancy between confirmatory and disconfirmatory learning increases with age during adolescence.


2021 ◽  
Vol 12 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jakob Kaiser ◽  
Madalina Buciuman ◽  
Sandra Gigl ◽  
Antje Gentsch ◽  
Simone Schütz-Bosbach

Sense of agency is the feeling of being in control of one's actions and their perceivable effects. Most previous research identified cognitive or sensory determinants of agency experience. However, it has been proposed that sense of agency is also bound to the processing of affective information. For example, during goal-directed actions or instrumental learning we often rely on positive feedback (e.g., rewards) or negative feedback (e.g., error messages) to determine our level of control over the current task. Nevertheless, we still lack a scientific model which adequately explains the relation between affective processing and sense of agency. In this article, we review current empirical findings on how affective information modulates agency experience, and, conversely, how sense of agency changes the processing of affective action outcomes. Furthermore, we discuss in how far agency-related changes in affective processing might influence the ability to enact cognitive control and action regulation during goal-directed behavior. A preliminary model is presented for describing the interplay between sense of agency, affective processing, and action regulation. We propose that affective processing could play a role in mediating the influence between subjective sense of agency and the objective ability to regulate one's behavior. Thus, determining the interrelation between affective processing and sense of agency will help us to understand the potential mechanistic basis of agency experience, as well as its functional significance for goal-directed behavior.


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