Dissociable roles for the striatal cholinergic system in different flexibility contexts.

The production of behavioural flexibility requires the coordination and integration of information from across the brain, by the dorsal striatum. In particular, the striatal cholinergic system is thought to be important for the modulation of striatal activity. Research from animal literature has shown that chemical inactivation of the dorsal striatum leads to impairments in reversal learning. Furthermore, proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy work has shown that the striatal cholinergic system is also important for reversal learning in humans. Here, we aim to assess whether the state of the dorsal striatal cholinergic system at rest is related to flexible behaviour in reversal learning. We provide preliminary results showing that variability in choline in the dorsal striatum is significantly related to both the number perseverative and regressive errors that participants make, and their rate of learning from positive and negative prediction errors. These findings, in line with previous work, suggest the resting state of dorsal striatal cholinergic system has important implications for producing flexible behaviour. However, these results also suggest the system may have heterogeneous functionality across different types of tasks measuring behavioural flexibility. These findings provide a starting point for further interrogation into understanding the functional role of the striatal cholinergic system in flexibility.

Investigating Modern Students’ Self-actualization

В статье рассматриваются теоретические аспекты самоактуализации, которая в зарубежной и отечественной психологии представлена как реализация потенциала, стремление к самоосуществлению,непрерывное развитие духовного потенциала личности, особое восприятие мира, высокий уровень психического и психологического здоровья (Гозман, 1995), адекватная саморегуляция и самоуправление. Анализируются результаты эмпирического исследования самоактуализации студентов педагогического направления подготовки. Описываются особенности самоактуализации двух групп студентов. Представители первой группы только начинали воспринимать свою жизнь во всей полноте, проявляли зависимость, конформность, несамостоятельность «извне» направляемой личности, имеющей внешний локус контроля, только учились быть относительно независимыми в своих поступках, стремились руководствоваться в жизни собственными целями, убеждениями, установками и принципами, в отличие от представителей другой группы, воспринимающих свою жизнь как целостный процесс, «изнутри» направляемых самоактуализирующихся личностей, не враждебных к окружающим и групповым нормам, организующих свое поведение на основе личностных ценностных ориентаций. Представлены выявленные связи между различными проявлениями самоактуализации у выделенных групп студентов. С помощью корреляционного анализа у всех студентов были обнаружены значимые сильные положительные связи между поддержкой, ценностной ориентацией, гибкостью поведения и самоуважением; между ценностной ориентацией, самоуважением и синергией; между гибкостью поведения и контактностью; между самоуважением и самопринятием. Эти связи указывали на то, что чем сильнее было естественное соотнесение их поведения с ценностями и самооценкой своих возможностей, тем более независимыми от воздействия извне были поведение и ценности; чем выше была самооценка студентами своих возможностей и сильнее целостное восприятие мира, тем более проявлялись у них принципы и оценки, присущие самоактуализирующейся личности; чем более глубокими и тесными были эмоционально насыщенные контакты с окружающими людьми в процессе субъект-субъектного общения, тем сильнее поведение соизмерялось с ценностями; чем больше они принимали самих себя, тем выше была самооценка своих возможностей. The article treats theoretical aspects of self-actualization, which is viewed by Russian and foreign scholars as the realization of one’s potential, desire to accomplish one’s goals, continuous development of one’s spiritual potential, one’s unique perception of the world, one’s emotional and psychological well-being (Gozman, 1995), efficient self-regulation and self-control. The article analyzes the results of an empirical research of novice teachers’ self-actualization. It describes the peculiarities of self-actualization of two groups of students. The representatives of the first group were highly conformable and dependent on others, were easily controlled by external powers, had the external locus of control, were learning to be independent in their actions, were learning to be guided by their own principles and beliefs. The representatives of the second group treated their life as a comprehensive process, were affable and friendly, abided by social norms, were guided by their own moral values and principles. The authors use correlation analysis to identify the correlation between students’ self-respect and their behavioural flexibility, their system of values and the support they get, as well as the correlation between their system of values, their behavioural flexibility and synergy, between behavioural flexibility and communicability, between self-respect and self-perception. These correlations show that people who respect themselves, who display respectful behaviour and have strong values are less prone to feel externally imposed depression, are guided by principles of self-actualization. The correlations also show that close emotional contact with other people involves other people’s moral values and self-respect.

Dietary plasticity in an invasive species and implications for management: the case of the monk parakeet in a Mediterranean city

Behavioural flexibility may play a relevant role during invasion of a new habitat. A typical example of behavioural flexibility favouring invasion success refers to changes in foraging behaviour. Here we provide data on changes in the foraging strategies of monk parakeets Myiopsitta monachus over a period of 17 years (2001–2017) in Barcelona city. During this time, consumption of food on the ground increased by more than 25 % and the consumption of anthropogenic food increased by 8 %. Detailed information about the food consumed is provided. Feeding on the ground and consumption of low plants allow parakeets to reach not only anthropogenic food but also crops, thereby increasing the risk of crop damage as the invasion evolves. Early detection of damage to crops is crucial in order to prevent further harm, and makes the precautionary principle highly relevant.

Waterbird solves the string-pull test

String-pulling is among the most widespread cognitive tasks used to test problem-solving skills in mammals and birds. The task requires animals to comprehend that pulling on a non-valuable string moves an otherwise inaccessible food reward to within their reach. Although at least 90 avian species have been administered the string-pull test, all but five of them were perching birds (passeriformes) or parrots (psittaciformes). Waterbirds (Aequorlitornithes) are poorly represented in the cognitive literature, yet are known to engage in complex foraging behaviours. In this study, we tested whether free-living ring-billed gulls ( Larus delawarensis ), a species known for their behavioural flexibility and foraging innovativeness, could solve a horizontal string-pull test. Here, we show that 25% (26/104) of the ring-billed gulls that attempted to solve the test at least once over a maximum of three trials were successful, and that 21% of them (22/104) succeeded during their first attempt. Ring-billed gulls are thus the first waterbird known to solve a horizontal single-string-rewarded string-pull test. Since innovation rate and problem-solving are associated with species' ability to endure environmental alterations, we suggest that testing the problem-solving skills of other species facing environmental challenges will inform us of their vulnerability in a rapidly changing world.

Investigating habits in humans with a symmetrical outcome revaluation task

To investigate the balance between goal-directed and habitual control in controlled experimental settings, animal researchers developed the outcome-revaluation paradigm. The translation of this paradigm to humans has yielded interesting insights but proven to be challenging. We present a novel, symmetrical outcome-revaluation task in which outcomes are both devalued and upvalued to reveal the disadvantage and advantage of habit formation. During the instrumental learning phase, participants learned to respond (Go) to certain stimuli to collect valuable outcomes (and points) while refraining to respond (NoGo) to stimuli signalling not-valuable outcomes. Half of the stimuli were short-trained, while the other half were long-trained. Subsequently, in the test phase, the signalled outcomes were either value-congruent with training (still-valuable and still-not-valuable), or incongruent (devalued and upvalued). The change in outcome value on incongruent trials meant that participants had to flexibly adjust their behaviour. At the end of the training phase, participants completed the self-report behavioural automaticity index – providing an automaticity score for each stimulus-response association. We conducted two experiments using this task, that both provided evidence for stimulus-driven habits as reflected in better performance on congruent than on incongruent test trials. While self-reported automaticity increased with longer training, behavioural flexibility was intact. After extended training (Experiment 2), higher levels of self-reported automaticity when responding to stimuli signalling valuable outcomes was related to more ‘slips of action’ when the associated outcome was subsequently devalued. We conclude that the symmetrical outcome revaluation task provides a promising paradigm for the experimental investigation of habits in humans.

Goats (Capra hircus) from different selection lines differ in their behavioural flexibility

Artificial selection by humans has likely affected animal’s ability to learn novel contingencies and their ability to adapt to changing environments. In addition, the selection for specific traits in domestic animals might have an additional impact on subject’s behavioural flexibility, but also their general learning performance, due to a re-allocation of resources towards parameters of productivity. To test whether animals bred for high productivity would experience a shift towards lower learning performance, we compared the performance of dwarf goats (not selected for production, 15 subjects) and dairy goats (selected for high milk yield, 18 subjects) in a visual discrimination learning and reversal learning task. To increase the heterogeneity of our test sample, data was collected by two experimenters at two research stations following a similar protocol. We did not find differences between selection lines in the initial discrimination learning task, but in the subsequent reversal learning task - dairy goats were slower to reach the learning criterion compared to dwarf goats (9.18 sessions versus 7.74 sessions, respectively). Our results indicate that the selection for milk production might have affected behavioural flexibility in goats. These breed-specific differences in adapting to changing environmental stimuli might have an impact on welfare-relevant parameters, e.g. when subjects are transferred or re-housed/re-grouped.

Learning and motor inhibitory control in crows and domestic chickens

Cognitive abilities allow animals to navigate through complex, fluctuating environments. In the present study, we tested the performance of a captive group of eight crows, Corvus corone and 10 domestic chickens, Gallus gallus domesticus , in the cylinder task, as a test of motor inhibitory control and reversal learning as a measure of learning ability and behavioural flexibility. Four crows and nine chickens completed the cylinder task, eight crows and six chickens completed the reversal learning experiment. Crows performed better in the cylinder task compared with chickens. In the reversal learning experiment, species did not significantly differ in the number of trials until the learning criterion was reached. The performance in the reversal learning experiment did not correlate with performance in the cylinder task in chickens. Our results suggest crows to possess better motor inhibitory control compared with chickens. By contrast, learning performance in a reversal learning task did not differ between the species, indicating similar levels of behavioural flexibility. Interestingly, we describe notable individual differences in performance. We stress the importance not only to compare cognitive performance between species but also between individuals of the same species when investigating the evolution of cognitive skills.

Signatures of adaptive evolution in platyrrhine primate genomes

The family Cebidae (capuchin and squirrel monkeys) form a remarkable platyrrhine clade exhibiting among the largest primate encephalisation quotients. Each cebid lineage is characterised by notable lineage-specific traits, with capuchins showing striking similarities to Hominidae including high sensorimotor intelligence with tool use, advanced cognitive abilities, and behavioural flexibility. Here, we take a comparative genomics approach, analysing five cebid branches including successive lineages, to infer a stepwise timeline for cebid adaptive evolution. We uncover candidate targets of selection across various periods of cebid evolution that may underlie the emergence of lineage-specific traits. Our analyses highlight shifting and sustained selective pressures on genes related to brain development, longevity, reproduction, and morphology, including evidence for cumulative and diversifying neurobiological adaptations over cebid evolutionary history. In addition to generating a new, high-quality reference genome assembly for robust capuchins, our results lend to a better understanding of the adaptive diversification of this distinctive primate clade.

Androgen synthesis inhibition but not gonadectomy reduces persistence during strategy set-shifting and reversal learning in male rats

Androgens regulate behavioural flexibility, which is essential to adapt to a changing environment and depends on the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). Testosterone (T) administration decreases behavioural flexibility. It is well known that T is produced in the gonads, but T is also produced in the mesocorticolimbic system, which modulates behavioural flexibility. It is unclear how T produced in the brain versus the gonads influences behavioural flexibility. Here, we assess the effects of the androgen synthesis inhibitor abiraterone acetate (ABI) and long-term gonadectomy (GDX) on behavioural flexibility in two paradigms. In Experiment 1, ABI independent of GDX reduced the number of trials to criterion and perseverative errors in a strategy set-shifting task. Similarly, in Experiment 2, ABI but not GDX reduced perseverative errors in a reversal learning task. In subjects from Experiment 1, we also examined tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactivity (TH-ir), and ABI but not GDX increased TH-ir in the mPFC. Our findings suggest that neurally-produced androgens modulate behavioural flexibility via modification of dopamine signalling in the mesocorticolimbic system. These results suggest novel roles for neurosteroids and possible side effects of ABI treatment for prostate cancer.