An Overvıew of Lower Gastroıntestınal Bleedıng ın Infants and Toddlers: A Revıew Artıcle

Lower gastrointestinal bleeding (LGIB) in infants and toddlers is commonly encountered in clinical practice. There are several factors producing LGIB in these children and are usually managed with regard to the underlying pathology that produces LGIB. Although majority of these bleeding episodes is self limited, certain infants and toddlers with LGIB may necessitate prompt management including urgent surgical intervention. In this review article it is aimed to review the etiology, epidemiology, clinical manifestations and principles of treatment of LGIB in infants and toddlers under the light of relevant literature.

Pediatric Visual Acuity Testing

Visual acuity measurement is an essential component of any eye exam. In adults and older children, letter-based acuity (i.e., recognition acuity) is commonly used to measure vision. However, in infants and toddlers, performing traditional visual acuity testing is nearly impossible. Instead, modified optotypes such as gratings and pictures are shown to observe the young child's visual behavior. Additionally, there are objective visual acuity methods that negate the need for observing visual behavior. For the practicing clinician, the choices are many and can be confusing. With new commercial products coming into the market every day, it is nearly impossible to comprehensively cover each one of them. Instead, in this chapter, commonly used and/or studied visual acuity tests are covered. For each test, the set-up, procedure, documentation, and scientific evidence supporting or negating its use are discussed.

Salutogenesis: Sense of Coherence in Childhood and Families

In this chapter on salutogenesis and sense of coherence (SOC) in families and children, the authors deal with the contributions of children’s environments to the adjustment of children with typical development, and the development of children with special needs. The authors report on their comprehensive literature review covering 20 years of research and 44 studies from 15 countries, including children from infants and toddlers through preschool to school-aged children up to 12 years of age.

Case History for the Pediatric Eye Examination

The art of taking a patient's case history is essential for a solid understanding of pertinent details before proceeding with an examination. While establishing rapport with the patient, the clinician should ask questions about birth history, developmental history, educational and social history. Active listening skills and flexibility of the provider are useful tools for an effective start to the examination. This chapter reviews categories of questions needed for optimization of case history for the pediatric patient. This includes questions focused on specific age categories, including infants and toddlers, preschoolers, elementary-aged children, and adolescents. The chapter author provides clinical pearls for a more efficient and effective exam, including a section on assisting children with special needs.

Poverty Effects on Oral Language Development

This chapter focuses on oral language development in children birth to third grade. Additionally, the effects of poverty on oral language development in children is explored. Subject matter includes typical language development, common language disorders, and current information regarding the interplay of language and technology. Particular attention is paid to the ways the home environment influences early language in infants and toddlers. Strategies to support language development in young children through the language experience approach, literacy, text sets, and technology are explained. Resources, materials, and suggested activities for parents, caregivers, and educators are embedded.