Polygenists, Black Jews, and the Proofs for the Disunity of Man

Charles White set the scene for the insertion of Jews, blacks, and black Jews into the great origin debate from a polygenist perspective. The polygenist “American School” of race theorists tried to destroy the monogenist argument based on the existence of a color change among Jews by arguing that all black Jews were racially not Jews at all. The immutability of race became a key feature of polygenist thinking. One of the proofs for immutability was perceived in the images found in ancient Egyptian and Assyrian art. Nott’s Types of Mankind analyzed not only black but also Jewish racial specificity. The Jews had a mark on them, and blacks were marked by the “mark of Cain”—their color. The heresy of the black Jew was attacked time and again by the polygenists. Agassiz agreed that Jews and blacks were marked out and distinguished from other races. In France Joseph Arthur, “Comte” de Gobineau combatted the idea that black Jews proved the impact of climate on racial groups, and the single origin of humankind. Gradually the polygenist argument started to suggest that purity of race among Jews could be shown by the fact that all Jews were of a dark, dusky coloring. Beddoe developed an index of nigrescence, on which the Jews scored 100 percent. Russell, co-creator with Darwin of the concept of natural selection, took issue with the concept of multicolored Jews and so, more ambiguously, did Richard Burton. Burton thought that the Jews were racially unique, like blacks.

ANALISIS KEGIATAN EKONOMI ATAS HAK CIPTA DALAM EKONOMI ISLAM

The existence of sharia provisions and protection of the Law on copyright provides adequate legal protection, of course so that the ability of intellectual rights, creativity, or community expertise can grow in line with a fair business competition climate. Copyright can be justified by Islamic Economics in terms of distributive justice. Consideration of fairness is a strong reason to support copyright. Fair that the inventor gets a reward for providing services to the community. Conversely, it would be unfair if others become "stowaways" at the expense of others who have tried to do research and new discoveries. Incentives also need to be given to the inventor because without him the development of art, science and technology would not be possible. Because the freedom that an inventor has is invaluable capital for the progress of society. Therefore, protection for what he found was appropriate given by the community.Keywords: Copyright, Islamic Economics Abstrak: Adanya ketentuan syariah dan perlindungan Undang-undang tentang hak cipta memberikan perlindungan hukum yang memadai, tentunya supaya kemampuan hak intelektual, kreativitas, atau keahlian masyarakat dapat tumbuh sejalan dengan iklim persaingan usaha yang sehat. Hak cipta dapat dibenarkan oleh Ekonomi Islam dari segi keadilan distributif. Pertimbangan mengenai keadilan merupakan alasan yang kuat untuk mendukung hak cipta. Adil bahwa penemu mendapatkan reward karena memberikan layanan bagi masyarakat. Sebaliknya, akan menjadi tidak adil jika orang lain menjadi “penumpang gelap” atas biaya orang lain yang telah berusaha melakukan penelitian dan penemuan baru. Insentif juga perlu diberikan kepada penemu karena tanpa dia tidak mungkin terjadi perkembangan seni, ilmu dan teknologi. Karena kebebasan yang dimiliki seorang penemu merupakan modal yang yang tak ternilai bagi kemajuan masyarakat. Oleh karena itu, perlindungan atas apa yang ia temukan pantas diberikan oleh masyarakat.Kata kunci: Hak Cipta, Ekonomi IslamDAFTAR PUSTAKAal-Duraini, Fathi. Haqq al-Ibtikar fi al-Fiqh al-Islami al-Muqaran, Bairut: Mu`assasah al-Risalah, 1984al-Zuhaili, Wahbah. al-Fiqh al-Islami wa Adilllatuhu, juz 4, Bairut: Dar al-Fikr al-Mu`ashir, 1998Badrulzaman, Mariam Darus. Mencari Sistem Hukum Benda Nasional, Bandung: BPHN-Alumni, 1983Damian, Eddy. Hukum Hak Cipta, Bandung: Penerbit Alumni, 2002Dewantara, Ki Hajar. Kebudayaan, (Jogjakarta: Majelis Luhur Persatuan Taman Siswa, 1967Fauzan, Ahmad. Perlindungan Hukum Hak Kekayaan Intelektual, Bandung, CV Yama Widya, 2004Muhammad, Abdul Kadir. Kajian Hukum Ekonomi Hak Kekayaan Intelektual, Bandung: PT. Citra Bakti, 2001Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa, Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, Jakarta: Balai Pustaka, 1996Pusat Pengkajian dan Pengembangan Ekonomi Islam (P3EI), Ekonomi Islam, Jakarta: PT. Raja Grafindo Persada, 2008R. Tjitrosudibio, dan R. Subekti Kitab Undang-undang Hukum Perdata, Jakarta: Pradnya Paramita, 1982Simatupang, Richard Burton. Aspek Hukum dalam Bisnis, Jakarta: PT. Rineka Cipta, 2003Sofwan, Sri Soedawi dan Masjchoen. Hukum Perdata: Hukum Benda, Yogyakarta: Liberty, 1981Subekti, Pokok-Pokok Perdata, Jakarta: PT. Intermasa, 1980Tunggal, Hadi Setia. Undang-Undang Hak Cipta (UU No. 19 Tahun 2002), Jakarta: Harvindo, 2003Undang-Undang Hak Cipta No. 19 Tahun 2002

The Race for Hafiz: Scholarly and Popular Translations at the Fin de Siècle

The great Persian lyric poet Hafiz was first translated into English by Sir William Jones in the 1780s. In the course of the nineteenth century many further translations would appear, initially intended for the use of oriental scholars and students of the Persian language, but increasingly also for the general reading public. The paraphrasers or ‘popularizers’ who devised the latter category of translation competed with professional scholars to shape the dissemination and popular perception of Persian poetry. Owing to a variety of factors, the middle of the nineteenth century saw a marked decline in the number of new Hafiz translations, and it is not until 1891 that a complete edition of Hafiz's works finally appeared in English. This led to an unusual situation, particular to Britain, in which scholars (Edward H. Palmer, Henry Wilberforce-Clarke, Gertrude Bell), and popularizers (Richard Burton, Herman Bicknell, Justin McCarthy, Richard Le Gallienne, John Payne) all jostled to fill the vacuum created by the absence of a definitive version. Their competition created, in short order, a diversity of versions presented to consumers, which allowed Hafiz's influence to be felt in twentieth-century poetry untrammelled by the impress (as became the case with Omar Khayyam) of one dominant translator. While the refraction of Hafiz through the biases and predispositions of multiple translators has been regarded as hopelessly distorting by Julie Scott Meisami, I argue instead that it highlights lyric, in the richness and diversity characteristic of Hafiz, as the Persian poetic mode which has been more influential on English writing and yet the most difficult to categorize and integrate. Lastly, by paying heed to the popular transmission of Hafiz in English, we might better understand the reception of Persian poetry in its generic, rather than only its formal character.

Related to Relativity

This chapter provides the context for the early twentieth-century events contributing to quantification. It was the golden age of scientific exploration, with explorers like David Livingstone, Sir Richard Burton, and Sir Ernest Shackleton, and intellectual pursuits, such as Hilbert’s set of unsolved problems in mathematics. However, most of the chapter is devoted to discussing the last major influencer of quantification: Albert Einstein. His life and accomplishments, including his theory of relativity, make up the final milestone on our road to quantification. The chapter describes his time in Bern, especially in 1905, when he published several famous papers, most particularly his law of special relativity, and later, in 1915, when he expanded it to his theory of general relativity. The chapter also provides a layperson’s description of the space–time continuum. Women of major scientific accomplishments are mentioned, including Madame Currie and the mathematician Maryam Mirzakhani.

David Lloyd George, Yma O Hyd

Hemos ganado la guerra, y hemos salvado el imperio". Y en efecto, fue así como un galés, educado en galés, fundó una "democracia imperial". E incluso, diría Gwyn Alf Williams, un "Gales imperial". Porque David Lloyd George, seguramente el más grande galés de la historia (con el permiso de Dylan Thomas, Richard Burton, Gareth Edwards y, por supuesto, "Harry, el rey") nació, al contrario que todos sus compatriotas rivales por la grandeza, en Inglaterra, y en plena Era victoriana

Hunters-Turned-Conservationists

The final chapter locates the careers of two prominent hunters-turned-conservationists—Jim Corbett and Richard Burton—within the essential paradox of hunting and conservation in colonial India. In the case of both, as this chapter demonstrates, any simple binary of the colonizer–colonized model is inadequate to explain their prolific hunting in the first half of their lives as well as their passionate commitment to the cause of conservation in the second half. The chapter examines how, in their dual roles as hunter and conservationist, killer and protector, ruler and saviour, both men encompassed the quintessential split image of the British Raj. Particularly in their role as slayers of man-eating predators, Corbett and Burton offer an extremely nuanced and complex image that revises any straightforward impression of colonial hunters in India dominating their natural environment in imitation of the imperial domination of India’s politics. Despite such caveats, this chapter argues that Corbett and Burton remained staunch loyalists to the British Raj, and cautions that the wider history of conservation thinking should pay due attention to the critical and historical analysis of individuals like Corbett and Burton, whose individual approaches to conservation issues were drawn from lived experience, just as much as from broader colonial attitudes.

Alexander, Star of Film, Stage, and Novel

This chapter explores how Alexander seems to have been ignored as a subject for the movies until after the Second World War, but he was soon on the stage, as in Terence Rattigan's Adventure Story (1949). Soon after, a full-length film, Alexander the Great, was shot in Spain in 1955, starring Richard Burton and Claire Bloom. Alexander has also been a subject for children's films. Maya the Bee was a German book by Waldemar Bousels of 1912. As for novels, Louis Couperus (Dutch, 1863–1923) wrote an Iskander. De roman van Alexander de Grate. Meanwhile, the novels The Alexander Cipher by Will Adams and Sunset Oasis by Baha Taher deals with an Alexander buried at Siwa.