Who was buried with Nestor’s Cup? Macroscopic and microscopic analyses of the cremated remains from Tomb 168 (second half of the 8th century BCE, Pithekoussai, Ischia Island, Italy)

Cremation 168 from the second half of the 8th century BCE (Pithekoussai’s necropolis, Ischia Island, Italy), better known as the Tomb of Nestor’s Cup, is widely considered as one of the most intriguing discoveries in the Mediterranean Pre-Classic archaeology. A drinking cup, from which the Tomb’s name derives, bears one of the earliest surviving examples of written Greek, representing the oldest Homeric poetry ever recovered. According to previous osteological analyses, the Cup is associated with the cremated remains of a juvenile, aged approximately 10–14 years at death. Since then, a vast body of literature has attempted to explain the unique association between the exceptionality of the grave good complex, the symposiac and erotic evocation of the Nestor’s Cup inscription with the young age of the individual buried with it. This paper reconsiders previous assessments of the remains by combining gross morphology with qualitative histology and histomorphometric analyses of the burnt bone fragments. This work reveals the commingled nature of the bone assemblage, identifying for the first time, more than one human individual mixed with faunal remains. These outcomes dramatically change previous reconstructions of the cremation deposit, rewriting the answer to the question: who was buried with Nestor’s Cup?.

Grave Goods in Early Medieval Europe: regional variability and decline

This article analyses the use of grave goods in burials across early medieval Europe and how that use changed over the course of the 6th to 8th centuries CE with the widespread transition to unfurnished burial. It uses data gathered from published cemetery excavation reports from England, France, Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, and the Netherlands. The grave good use in these cemeteries was analysed using GIS methods to visualise regional differences, as well as statistical methods to analyse how grave good use evolved over time in those regions. This analysis revealed clear regional distinctions in grave good use, with England and Alamannia appearing similar, with relatively high levels of grave good use. Meanwhile, parts of Frankia and of Burgundy had considerably lower levels of grave good use. Distributions of individual artefact types tended to match those of overall numbers, but there were a few key exceptions, such as vessels, which followed a quite different pattern, being found in high numbers along the Frankish coast, but in much lower numbers elsewhere. Despite these overall trends, there was still considerable intra-regional and intra-cemetery variation that suggests communities and individuals had the ability to make highly individual choices about the way to bury their dead, along with the ability to subvert local norms. It also revealed that while there was a general decline in the use of grave goods across this period, and everywhere eventually reached the point of almost completely unfurnished burial, this decline occurred at different rates. In particular, there was a zone around the North Sea, including Kent, western Frankia, and the Low Countries, where there was little change in grave good use until it was suddenly abandoned in the early 8th century. Different types of objects declined at different rates across different regions, with few clear trends, suggesting that only personal accessories held a common significance across Europe; the meanings of all other object types were negotiated on a local basis.

A sexual division of labour at the start of agriculture? A multi-proxy comparison through grave good stone tool technological and use-wear analysis

This work demonstrates the importance of integrating sexual division of labour into the research of the transition to the Neolithic and its social implications. During the spread of the Neolithic in Europe, when migration led to the dispersal of domesticated plants and animals, novel tasks and tools, appear in the archaeological record. By examining the use-wear traces from over 400 stone tools from funerary contexts of the earliest Neolithic in central Europe we provide insights into what tasks could have been carried out by women and men. The results of this analysis are then examined for statistically significant correlations with the osteological, isotopic and other grave good data, informing on sexed-based differences in diet, mobility and symbolism. Our data demonstrate males were buried with stone tools used for woodwork, and butchery, hunting or interpersonal violence, while women with those for the working of animal skins, expanding the range of tasks known to have been carried out. The results also show variation along an east-west cline from Slovakia to eastern France, suggesting that the sexual division of labour (or at least its representation in death) changed as farming spread westwards.

Regional Coalescence or Further Regionalization?

Prehistoric cultural and sociopolitical development in the mountainous region of Lika, Croatia, is still poorly understood, despite over a century of archaeological excavations. Traditional cultural-historical narratives based on grave good typologies suggest that a unified regional culture, the Iapodes, emerged at the end of the Bronze Age and rapidly expanded across the area. This interpretation, however, has yet to be systematically tested. To better identify and understand to the potential processes of identity formation during this period, this article analyzes mortuary contexts and assemblages as proxies for changing relationships between communities and possible materialization of a shared group identity. Results suggest clear but uneven momentum toward standardized burial practice among groups in neighboring valleys, implying that the creation of a true Iapodian group identity likely took longer than previously thought. Unatoč više od stoljeća arheoloških iskopavanja, stupanj istraženosti kulturnog i društveno-političkog razvoja prapovijesnih zajednica u hrvatskoj planinskoj regiji Lici još uvijek je skroman. Po uvriježenom kulturno-povijesnom tumačenju, temeljenom na tipologijama nalaza iz grobova, Japodi su se, kao jedinstvena regionalna kulturna grupa, pojavili na kraju brončanog doba, te su se vrlo brzo proširili područjem Like. Ovakvu interpretaciju, međutim, tek treba sustavno preispitati. S ciljem boljeg utvrđivanja i razumijevanja potencijalnih procesa formiranja identiteta tijekom ovog razdoblja, u ovom su radu analizirani grobni konteksti i pripadajući skupovi nalaza koji su odraz promjenjivih odnosa među zajednicama, kao i moguće materijalizacije zajedničkog grupnog identiteta. Rezultati analize ukazuju na jasnu, premda neujednačenu težnju ka standardizaciji pogrebne prakse između zajednica susjednih dolina, što sugerira da je proces formiranja pravog japodskog grupnog identiteta vjerojatno trajao duže nego što se pretpostavljalo.

A Quantitative Study of the Linear Pottery Culture Cemetery “Aiterhofen-Ödmühle”

This article emphasises on the results of the master´s thesis “Burials in Bytes. A Quantitative Study of Linear Pottery Cemeteries in Austria, Bohemia, Moravia and Southern Germany” and further elaborates on interpretations of identified patterns at Early Neolithic cemeteries. The focus will lie on the Lower Bavarian site “Aiterhofen-Ödmühle.” Although the cemetery was subject to different analyses and interdisciplinary research in the past, there are still unsolved issues regarding chronology, structure, meaning of the local mortuary rites and rules, and its significance in the superregional context. The study utilised data acquisition via the Montelius image database and quantitative methods performed through the softwares WinSerion and Google Mapper. These data consisted of various typologies and classifications, while several variations of correspondence analysis, seriation, Analysis N Next Neighbours, and the creation of distribution maps have been involved in the process of evaluation. The results of the evaluations of Aiterhofen-Ödmühle favour a chronological south–north progression. Inhumations and cremations differ in grave good equipment, potentially representing contrasts in gender distribution. Spatial groupings are distinguishable through their properties – open to various ways of interpretation and comparable to clusters of other cemeteries. Differences regarding age and sex were also highlighted. Overall, Aiterhofen-Ödmühle stands out among Early Neolithic cemeteries through region-specific grave goods and death gesture, local peculiarities, variation of burial types, and its site structure. Similarities to other sites include characteristic Linear Pottery traits, although less obvious connections can also be recognised through the quantitative evaluations. Instead of rigid funerary rules, dynamic and flexible rites are suggested.

Social Status and Its Relationship to Non-specific Stress at Late Iron Age Non Ban Jak, Northeast Thailand

The rise of social inequality is a key development in human history and is linked to deteriorating health. These associated health impacts are poorly understood for Iron Age (420 B.C.–A.D. 500) northeast Thailand. To clarify this issue we investigate whether social status differences influence non-specific stress at the site of Non Ban Jak (A.D. 300–800), which comprises two separate burial mounds. These mounds are thought to represent the neighborhoods of two distinct social groups at the site. Quantitative analyses were used to explore differences in grave goods among the adults of Non Ban Jak (N = 47). Long bone lengths, ages at death, and linear enamel hypoplasia (LEH) were examined to explore differences in non-specific stress on the basis of age, sex, burial mound, and mortuary phase. Results demonstrated that older adults of both sexes, males of all ages, and west mound individuals received greater grave good quantities and may therefore have been of higher social status. West mound individuals were taller and had a lower prevalence of LEH compared to those from the east mound. Although female LEH prevalence and mortality were reduced relative to males, decreasing stature over time and high neonatal mortality indicated greater female stress. Lower-status individuals may therefore have suffered increased stress relative to those of higher status. Artifactual and epigraphic evidence supports the suggestion of sex- and class-based status differences at Non Ban Jak, legitimized and perpetuated through the adoption of residential burial and new religious ideologies. การปรากฎขึ้นของความไม่เท่าเทียมทางสังคมเป็นพัฒนาการสำคัญอย่างหนึ่งในประวัติศาสตร์มนุษยชาติและเชื่อมโยงกับสุขภาพที่เสื่อมลง ความรู้ความเข้าใจเกี่ยวกับสุขภาวะที่เกี่ยวเนื่องกับความไม่เท่าเทียมทางสังคมในสมัยเหล็ก (ประมาณ ๒,๔๐๐ – ๑,๕๐๐ ปีมาแล้ว) ในภาคตะวันออกเฉียงเหนือนี้ยังมีน้อย ดังนั้น เพื่อสร้างความเข้าใจให้ชัดเจนในเรื่องนี้ เราจึงได้ศึกษาตรวจสอบว่าความแตกต่างด้านสถานะทางสังคมมีอิทธิพลต่อความตึงเครียดหรือไม่ ทั้งนี้ เราใช้หลักฐานทางโบราณคดีจากแหล่งโบราณคดีโนนบ้านจาก (กำหนดอายุระหว่าง ๒,๓๐๐ – ๑,๒๐๐ ปีมาแล้ว) ซึ่งมีเนินหลุมฝังศพ ๒ เนิน เราเชื่อว่าเนินดินหลุมฝังศพทั้งสองเนินนี้เป็นแหล่งฝังศพของกลุ่มคน ๒ กลุ่มที่เป็นเพื่อนบ้านกันหรือมีความใกล้ชิดทางสังคม เราใช้วิธีการวิเคราะห์เชิงปริมาณในการศึกษาตรวจสอบความแตกต่างของวัตถุอุทิศที่พบร่วมกับหลุมฝังศพของคนในวัยที่เป็นผู้ใหญ่ นอกจากนี้ เรายังวิเคราะห์ความยาวของกระดูกแขน-ขา อายุเมื่อตาย และการเสื่อมผุของเคลือบฟัน เพื่อตรวจสอบระดับความแตกต่างของความตึงเครียดตามเพศ อายุ/วัย กลุ่มสังคม และช่วงเวลา ผลการศึกษาพบว่าผู้ใหญ่วัยสูงอายุทั้งเพศหญิงและชาย ผู้ชายทุกวัย และกลุ่มคนจากเนินฝังศพด้านตะวันตกมีจำนวนวัตถุอุทิศมากกว่ากลุ่มคนจากเนินฝังศพทางตะวันออก และดังนั้นคนที่ถูกฝังในเนินดินฝังสพทางตะวันตกอาจจะมีสถานภาพสูงกว่าคนที่ถูกฝังในเนินดินหลุมฝังศพทางตะวันออก คนที่ถูกฝังในเนินดินหลุมฝังศพทางตะวันตกมีร่างกายที่สูงกว่าและมีการเสื่อมผุของเคลือบฟันน้อยกว่าคนที่ฝังที่เนินดินทางตะวันออก และแม้ว่าการเสื่อมผุของเคลือบฟันและอัตราการเสียชีวิตของผู้หญิงลดลงเมื่อเปรียบเทียบกับผู้ชาย แต่ผู้หญิงก็มีส่วนสูงเฉลี่ยลดลง และมีอัตราการเสียชีวิตของทารกในครรภ์สูงขึ้นตามช่วงเวลาซึ่งอาจจะแสดงว่าผู้หญิงมีชีวิตความตึงเครียด และคนที่มีสถานภาพทางสังคมต่ำก็มีความตึงเครียดมากกว่าคนที่มีสภาพทางสังคมที่สูงด้วย หลักฐานประเภทโบราณวัตถุและจารึกโบราณสนับสนุนว่าความแตกต่างทางสถานภาพทางสังคมและเพศที่แหล่งโบราณคดีโนนบ้านจากเกิดขึ้นและดำรงอยู่ดังจะสะท้อนให้เห็นจากการฝังศพในที่อยู่อาศัยและการเข้ามาของระบบความเชื่อทางศาสนาอันใหม่

Kinship, acquired and inherited status, and population structure at the Early Bronze Age Mokrin necropolis in northern Serbia

Twenty-four ancient genomes with an average sequencing coverage of 0.85±0.25 X were produced from the Mokrin necropolis, an Early Bronze Age (2,100-1,800 BC) Maros culture site in Serbia, to provide unambiguous identification of biological sex, population structure, and genetic kinship between individuals. Of the 24 investigated individuals, 15 were involved in kinship relationships of varying degrees, including 3 parent-offspring relationships. All observed parent-offspring pairs were mother and son. In addition to the absence of biological daughters, we observed a number of young women and girls with no biological relatives in our sample. These observations, together with the high mitochondrial diversity in our sample, are consistent with the practice of female exogamy in the population served by Mokrin. However, moderate-to-high Y-chromosomal diversity suggests a degree of male mobility greater than that expected under strict patrilocality. Individual status differences at Mokrin, as indicated by grave goods, support the inference that females could inherit status, but could not transmit status to all their sons. The case of a son whose grave good richness outstrips that of his biological mother suggests that sons had the possibility to acquire status during their lifetimes. The Mokrin sample resembles a genetically unstructured population, suggesting that the community’s social hierarchies were not accompanied by strict marriage barriers.

The Dead and their Possessions: The Declining Agency of the Cadaver in Early Medieval Europe

Between the sixth and eighth centuries ad, the practice of furnished burial was widely abandoned in favour of a much more standardized, unfurnished rite. This article examines that transition by considering the personhood and agency of the corpse, the different ways bonds of possession can form between people and objects, and what happens to those bonds at death. By analysing changing grave good use across western Europe, combined with an in-depth analysis of the Alamannic cemetery of Pleidelsheim, and historical evidence for perceptions of the corpse, the author argues that the change in grave good use marks a fundamental change in the perception of corpses.