True grit: ingestion of small stone particles by hummingbirds in West Mexico

Background Grit is used by birds mainly for grinding hard food items but can also serve a nutritional role as a source of minerals. Ingestion of grit by birds has been documented primarily in species that feed on seeds and invertebrates. Although feeding mainly on nectar and small arthropods, hummingbirds also ingest grit, but why they do so is unclear. We quantified the number of grit particles in the stomachs of six species of hummingbirds during an annual cycle in a seasonal ecosystem of West Mexico. Methods We compared the number of grit particles in the stomachs of different hummingbird species (Mexican Violetear Colibri thalassinus, Amethyst-throated Mountaingem Lampornis amethystinus, White-eared Hummingbird Basilinna leucotis, Rivoli’s Hummingbird Eugenes fulgens, Broad-tailed Hummingbird Selasphorus platycercus, and Rufous Hummingbird S. rufus), and between sex and age categories during the different seasons of a year. To determine if grit was used to grind ingested arthropods, we examined the relationships between the number of grit particles, the biomass of arthropods ingested, and their chitin content. Results Although species did not differ in the number of grit particles in their stomachs, we found that grit was mostly ingested by female individuals, with only one male of one species (Mexican Violetear) presenting grit in its stomach. We also found that female hummingbirds had grit in their stomachs during the rainy and the cold-dry season (June–February) but not during the warm-dry season (March–May). Our analyses revealed no relationship between the number of grit particles and the amount of ingested arthropods and arthropod chitin content. However, high grit consumption was related to wasp ingestion on Mexican Violetears. Conclusions Our results indicate that grit is used mainly by female hummingbirds. The seasonal variation in the ingestion of grit by female individuals suggests that it can be used to meet mineral requirements related to breeding; however, this topic needs further exploration. Additionally, the use of grit was proportionally higher in juvenile individuals, suggesting it is used for grinding arthropods during a period of fast development.

A SORT OF SEPULCHRAL CONSTRUCTION IN WADI UMM ṬULAYḤA, SOUTHEASTERN BADIA, JORDAN?

This paper presents a linguistic and etymological analysis of three North Arabian inscriptions carved on a relatively small stone. The stone was found east of al-Jafr in southern Jordan, near the Jordanian-Saudi border. The content of the three inscriptions in terms of writing style, topic, and vocabulary is similar to other North Arabian inscriptions. Nevertheless, the three inscriptions include new words that have not been attested before in other inscriptions of the same type. Some rock drawings were also found in the same rujm.

On the Buddhist Statues Excavated from Hoeamsa-ji in Yangju

Hoeamsa Temple in Yangju province was one of the most important Buddhist temples in the early days of the Joseon dynasty from the late Koryo, which was the place dwelled by Jigong(指空), Naong(懶翁), and Muhak(無學). Even in the early Joseon Dynasty, Hoeamsa Temple served as a royal temple. Yi Saek witnessed the seven Buddha statues of 15-chuck in height and the Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara image of 10-chuck in Hoeamsa and recorded the marvelous features of the temple in his book, Sujo-gi. However, none of these statues remain in modern days, and only fragments of the small stone Buddha statues and other Buddhist deity sculptures have been excavated at Hoeamsa-ji Temple site. It is difficult to ascertain the substance of the Buddhist sculptures of Hoeamsa temple with only a few fragments of small stone statues. From the historical records and the analysis of styles in those fragments, compared with other sculptures in the early Joseon dynasty, we can assume that Prince Hyoryeong supported these stone Buddha images. Since the large Buddha statues that Yi mentioned above were already enshrined in the main building of Hoeamsa Temple, Prince Hyoryeong would have been focused on the construction of stupas or making tiles for the renovation of shrines for the Buddha except for the large Buddha statue. Instead, he would have sponsored the artisans to sculpt small stone Buddhas and bring them to buildings or shrines other than Bokwangjeon, the main hall. Previous research estimated that the materials for those small stone Buddha images were either tuff or sandstone. There are several differences in rock quality, stone particles, color, and homogeneity compared to actual rocks. Unlike the general stone Buddha statues in Korea using granite, the Buddha statues excavated from the Hoeamsa Temple are bright yellowish-white. And the rocks are so fine in quality to make the particles indistinguishable. When we see those pieces of Buddha statues in bare eyes, it looks like kaolin stone. It is necessary to analyze the materials of these stone sculptures and confirm the rock composition or materials through more precise scientific verification. Despite the prestige of the Hoeamsa Temple in the period, the absence of a large Buddha statue is unfortunate. Even if Hoeamsa Temple served as a royal temple, jaboksa, in the early Joseon Dynasty, the hostility of the Confucian scholars was enormous. The absence of the Buddha statues and the thorough destruction of the buildings in Hoeamsa proves that Joseon finally became a Confucian country.

Huts and stone arrangements at Hilary Creek, western Queensland: Recent fieldwork at an Australian Aboriginal site complex

This paper reports on an Aboriginal site complex, incorporating hut structures, ceremonial stone arrangements, an extensive surface artefact assemblage of lithics and mussel shell, and a silcrete quarry, located along Hilary Creek, a tributary of the Georgina River in western Queensland, Australia. At least two phases of occupation are indicated. The most recent huts have their collapsed organic superstructure still present, while those of a presumably earlier phase are distinguished as bare, circular patches of earth which are conspicuous amongst the ubiquitous gibber, with or without stone bases, and lacking any collapsed superstructure. Immediately adjacent to the huts and also a few hundred metres away are clusters of small stone arrangements, and about 2 km to the southwest, along the same creekline, is another series of larger, more substantial stone arrangements; these features speak to the importance of the general Hilary Creek area for ceremonial purposes. Radiocarbon dating reveals use of the Hilary Creek complex dates to at least 300 years ago; the absence of any European materials suggests it was likely not used, or only used very sporadically, after the 1870s when pastoralists arrived in the area, and when traditional lifeways were devastated by colonial violence.

Vinyl-Asbestos Floor Risk Exposure in Three Different Simulations

Vinyl floors are widely used in public areas for their low cost and easy cleaning. From 1960 to 1980, asbestos was often added to improve vinyl floor performances. The Italian Ministerial Decree (M.D.) 06/09/94 indicates asbestos vinyl tiles as non-friable materials and, therefore, few dangerous to human health. This work aims to check through three different experimental tests if asbestos floor tiles, after decades of use, maintain their characteristics of compactness and non-friability. The effect of a small stone fragment stuck in the sole of rubber shoes was reproduced by striking the vinyl floor with a crampon. A vinyl tile was broken into smaller pieces with the aid of pliers to simulate what normally happens when workers replace the floors or sample it to verify the presence of asbestos. The third test reproduced the abrasion of the tile surface due to the dragging of furniture or heavy materials or sand grains that remain attached to the soles of shoes. The tests were carried out in safe conditions, working under an extractor hood with a glove box. Airborne sampling in the hood obtained the concentration of asbestos fibers produced in each test. The simulation tests performed confirms the possible release of fibers if the vinyl tiles are cut, abraded or perforated, as indicated by the Italian M.D.

Analysis of the Influence of Water-cement Ratio on Concrete Strength

In this paper, the main strength of the relationship between water-cement ratio and concrete, and it uses the contrast test of different water cement ratio, finally, it gets the regular change between water cement ratio and concrete strength. The test results show that: cement. when the ratio of large stone: small stone: water: admixture is 340: 618: 1009: 433: 139: 6.8, the water-cement ratio of concrete is within the range of 0.371-0.479. The concrete strength of the sample decreases with the increase of the water-cement ratio. Finally, the relationship between the concrete strength and the water-cement ratio is obtained by fitting.

Stone icon from Belz in the context of Christian cult products of Upper Bug region

Recently discovered stone icon from annalistic Belz is presented for scientific use. This scapular is considered in the context of other stone icons and metal crosses-encolpions, which are concentrated in the oldest annalistic cities of the Upper Bug region – Volodymyr, Cherven, Belz, Volhyn, Zvenyhorod or near them, forming a distinct cluster of Christian cult products. Circumstances and place of discovery of the Belz icon are analyzed, its connection with dytynets of the ancient city is proved. The icon from Belz is dedicated to the great martyr brothers Borys and Glib – first Old Rus’ canonized saints, sons of grand knyaz Volodymyr Svyatoslavovych. Iconographic type of image from the icon, where knyazs are represented in full growth as martyrs and warriors with crosses and swords, was created in Byzantium. From here, it could be moved to Kyiv Rus’ state directly or through South Slavic and European culture. Very few icons with such iconographic scheme have been found. According to artistic value and elements of iconography, the stone icon from the Solotchinskyi cloister near Old Ryazan was the closest. Its production is associated with activities of South Rus’ Kyiv craftsmen. The Belz scapular probably can be dated back to XIII century, perhaps the first third of it, characterized by activity of the Kyiv school, which is associated with a series of wonderful works of small stone plastic. Borys-and-Glib cult was quite active on the territory of Upper Bug region during this period, as evidenced by encolpions with images of Borys and Glib and data on the possibility of their local production. Tradition of worshiping this cult in Volhyn’ in the second half of XIII century can be associated with active religious efforts of knyaz Volodymyr Vasylkovych (1249/1250–1288). The same tradition continued during following centuries, as evidenced by Church of Borys and Glib in Potelych near Belz, mentioned in the chronicle in 1262. The Belz scapular is characterized by an artistically perfect depiction of figures of Borys and Glib, rich decoration of their clothes and headgear, realistic images of soft leather shoes, clothing details, distinctive highlight of the sword and cross – symbols of martyrdom. It can be placed in line with the best stone icons of a whole Rus’. Key words: Upper Bug region, Christian symbols, icon, Belz, Borys and Glib.

Characteristics of the Eneolithic funeral rite in the Tobol River region (the burial ground in the settlement of Ustyug-3)

The article is concerned with the Eneolithic burials of the Tobol River region from excavations in the Ustyug-1 kurgan cemetery in the Zavodoukovsky district of the Tyumen Oblast. Apart from the settlement layer left by populations of the Shapkul and Andreevskoe Cultures, five ground burials of different periods were found in the settlement of Ustyug-3, with the Eneolithic grave goods attributed to the same cultures and dated to the end of the 4th — middle of the 3rd mil. BC. Analogies to the funeral rite can be traced in the territory of the Tobol-Iset basin, in the Urals, and in Kazakhstan. The original position of the deceased was preserved in the paired burial: one indi-vidual was placed in sitting position at the head of another, who laid stretched on the back. The authors consider in this case the tradition of «joint death». Findings from the burial pits include plates, retouched arrowheads on flakes, drop-shaped shale pendants, small stone «iron». The obtained evidence suggests that the grave complex was created by the population of the Shapkul Culture, but the location was further used for the routine life and rituals by groups of other cultural traditions, who, apparently, were coming to this area alternately during the Eneolithic. Features of pottery ornamentation, flake industry, and rituals of the sites in the region are different from those in the Middle and Southern Urals, the steppe areas of the Tobol River basin. As such, we envisage further research prospects in revealing the cultural identity of various regions of the Trans-Urals.

Petroglyphs of Mount Dyalbak, Eastern Altai

This study focuses on a petroglyph site of Mount Dyalbak in the northeastern part of Balyktuyul village, in the Ulagansky District, Altai Republic. Images are engraved mostly on horizontal planes of the Devonian limestone of which the mountain slope is composed. We give a detailed description of the documentation methods. Photography was carried out under the oblique natural light, though certain areas of the planes were photographed using fl ash. Engravings were copied mostly on a tablet computer. On the basis of visual observations, the condition of planes with petroglyphs is described, conclusions regarding the principal threats are given, and measures aimed at the preservation of the site are proposed. Rocks and planes with engravings are described in detail. Most images date to the Early Middle Ages. Their motifs and characters have numerous parallels in Central Asian art. There are scenes of hunting, armed fi ghting, and separate pictures of bows and quivers, relating to the cult of weapons and militarism. Two depicted warriors are holding spears with banners. Images of animals include those of mountain goats, reindeer, and boars. Some motifs are unusual: yurts and a pair of Siberian stags, male and female, related to the fertility cult. Some images, such as that of a chariot, date to the Late Bronze Age, while others, like those engraved on a separate small stone, are recent.