Who wants to wash away their sins? Guilt and shame proneness and behavioral moral cleansing endorsement: a pilot study

In our pilot cross-sectional study, we aimed to explore the associations between guilt and shame proneness and moral cleansing endorsement. Our sample consisted of 484 adults (73.3% females), aged 18 and 53 (M=24.09, SD=7.32). We used a novel approach to explore moral cleansing mechanisms, i.e., a two-item scale assessing behavioral cleansing endorsement (one's agreement with the idea that people must "wash away" their immoral acts by acting in ethical ways that would "clean" their moral debt). In addition to the significant associations that we found between moral cleansing endorsement and the guilt and shame proneness dimensions (i.e., negative behavior evaluation, repair action tendencies, negative self-evaluation, and withdrawal action tendencies), results also suggested that moral cleansing endorsement was significantly predicted by overall guilt and shame proneness. More specifically, we found that higher levels of guilt and shame proneness might account for higher moral cleansing endorsement levels. We also found important associations with participants' age: our findings suggested that the higher the age, the higher the endorsement for moral actions aimed to "clean" immoral deeds. Results are discussed in relation to cultural-related factors.

Attention: Here, There and Everywhere: The Relationship between Emotional Images and Attention Distribution

<p>Within the field of cognitive psychology there are two opposing theoretical frameworks, the conceptual metaphor theory and the broaden-and-build theory, which attempt to explain the influence of emotionally valenced stimuli on attention distribution. The conceptual metaphor theory (Lakoff & Johnson, 1999) asserts that concrete concepts (e.g. vertical distance or brightness) are used as metaphors to scaffold mental representations of abstract concepts (e.g. love and power). These metaphors rely on sensorimotor information in order to be understood, and therefore are said to be embodied. The focus of this thesis is the “Good is Up, Bad is Down” conceptual metaphor. A central prediction of this theory is that emotionally valenced stimuli should activate the “Good is Up, Bad is Down” metaphor, and automatically shift vertical attention congruently. In contrast, the broaden-and-build theory (Fredrickson, 2004) is based on evolutionary principles (Frijda, 1986), with negative emotions associated with specific-action tendencies and positive emotions associated with diffuse-action tendencies. The main prediction derived from this theory is that when individuals are induced into positive emotions their attention is broadened, whereas when induced into negative emotions their attention is narrowed. The central aim of this thesis was to gather experimental data in support for either the conceptual metaphor theory or the broaden-and-build theory when using emotionally laden images to induce affect, compared to prior research, which has utilised valenced words. This thesis also aimed to examine the influence, if any, of both valence and arousal of the emotional images. The literature provides conflicting views on whether these constructs are orthogonal or interconnected, and as such what effect they have on evaluative processing. To date, research examining the conceptual metaphor theory or the broaden-and-build theory has not controlled for both valence and arousal in their experimental design. Two experiments were designed to assess both aims. In Experiment 1, emotionally valenced images were presented in either the upper or lower visual field, and participants were asked to categorise the image as “positive” or “negative” by pressing a designated key on a keyboard. In Experiment 2, the emotional images were displayed in the centre of the visual field for a fixed period of time, followed by the presentation of a target letter in either the upper or lower visual field. Participants responded by pressing the corresponding key to the target letter on a keyboard. Across both experiments no shifts in attention were congruent with the “Good is Up, Bad is Down” conceptual metaphor theory, indicating that the conceptual metaphor theory is not supported when utilising images. In contrast, Experiment 2 provided experimental data in support of the broaden-and-build theory, with participants responding faster to all target letters following high valenced images regardless of their position. Finally, this thesis provides support to the notion that valence and arousal are orthogonal constructs, independently influencing higher order cognitive processes such as attention.</p>

Attention: Here, There and Everywhere: The Relationship between Emotional Images and Attention Distribution

<p>Within the field of cognitive psychology there are two opposing theoretical frameworks, the conceptual metaphor theory and the broaden-and-build theory, which attempt to explain the influence of emotionally valenced stimuli on attention distribution. The conceptual metaphor theory (Lakoff & Johnson, 1999) asserts that concrete concepts (e.g. vertical distance or brightness) are used as metaphors to scaffold mental representations of abstract concepts (e.g. love and power). These metaphors rely on sensorimotor information in order to be understood, and therefore are said to be embodied. The focus of this thesis is the “Good is Up, Bad is Down” conceptual metaphor. A central prediction of this theory is that emotionally valenced stimuli should activate the “Good is Up, Bad is Down” metaphor, and automatically shift vertical attention congruently. In contrast, the broaden-and-build theory (Fredrickson, 2004) is based on evolutionary principles (Frijda, 1986), with negative emotions associated with specific-action tendencies and positive emotions associated with diffuse-action tendencies. The main prediction derived from this theory is that when individuals are induced into positive emotions their attention is broadened, whereas when induced into negative emotions their attention is narrowed. The central aim of this thesis was to gather experimental data in support for either the conceptual metaphor theory or the broaden-and-build theory when using emotionally laden images to induce affect, compared to prior research, which has utilised valenced words. This thesis also aimed to examine the influence, if any, of both valence and arousal of the emotional images. The literature provides conflicting views on whether these constructs are orthogonal or interconnected, and as such what effect they have on evaluative processing. To date, research examining the conceptual metaphor theory or the broaden-and-build theory has not controlled for both valence and arousal in their experimental design. Two experiments were designed to assess both aims. In Experiment 1, emotionally valenced images were presented in either the upper or lower visual field, and participants were asked to categorise the image as “positive” or “negative” by pressing a designated key on a keyboard. In Experiment 2, the emotional images were displayed in the centre of the visual field for a fixed period of time, followed by the presentation of a target letter in either the upper or lower visual field. Participants responded by pressing the corresponding key to the target letter on a keyboard. Across both experiments no shifts in attention were congruent with the “Good is Up, Bad is Down” conceptual metaphor theory, indicating that the conceptual metaphor theory is not supported when utilising images. In contrast, Experiment 2 provided experimental data in support of the broaden-and-build theory, with participants responding faster to all target letters following high valenced images regardless of their position. Finally, this thesis provides support to the notion that valence and arousal are orthogonal constructs, independently influencing higher order cognitive processes such as attention.</p>

Multiple action options in the context of time: When exams approach, students study more and experience fewer motivational conflicts

University students’ study motivation in a particular moment is shaped by contextual factors such as upcoming exams and conflicts between different action tendencies. We investigated how these two contextual factors are related. Based on the theoretical assumption that students’ in-the-moment study motivation increases relative to their motivation for other activities as exams approach, we investigated how students’ study activities and their experience of motivational action conflicts develop when exams come closer in time. Using the experience sampling method, we tracked the in-situ activities and conflict experience of 134 first-semester university students over one week and a total of 4995 measurement points just before exams. Multilevel logistic regression revealed that the probability to study increased by 13.9% and the probability to experience a motivational conflict decreased by 17.5% each day the exam came closer in time. Multilevel regression showed that motivational conflicts were more intense the closer the exam was in time. Students were generally less likely to experience conflicts while studying and experienced more intense conflicts when the conflicting activity was study related. We discuss that both multiple goals and the temporal distance of relevant events should be considered as relevant contexts shaping the situated motivation of university students.

Positive emotion enhances conflict processing in preschoolers

The rapid detection and resolution of conflict between opposing action tendencies is crucial for our ability to engage in goal-directed behavior. Research in adults suggests that emotions might serve as a ‘relevance detector’ that alarms attentional and sensory systems, thereby leading to more efficient conflict processing. In contrast, previous research in children has almost exclusively stressed the impeding influence of emotion on the attentional system, as suggested by the protracted development of performance in ‘hot’ executive function tasks. How does emotion modulate conflict processing in development? We addressed this question applying a modified version of a color flanker task that either involved or did not involve emotional stimuli in preschool children (N = 43, with preregistered Bayesian sequential design, aged 2.8 – 7.0 years). Our results show a robust conflict effect with higher error rates in incongruent compared to congruent trials. Crucially, conflict resolution was faster in emotional compared to neutral conditions. Furthermore, while efficient conflict processing increases with age, we find evidence against an age-related change in the influence of emotion on conflict processing. Taken together, these findings provide first indication that emotion can trigger efficient control processes already from early on in life. In contrast to previous findings and theories in developmental psychology, this indicates that, depending on the role that emotion has in conflict processing, emotion may show a facilitative or impeding effect.

“Health Comes First”: Action Tendencies to Health-Related Stimuli in People with Health-Anxiety as Revealed by an Emotional Go/No-Go Task

The processing of health-related stimuli can be biased by health anxiety and anxiety sensitivity but, at the moment, it is far from clear whether health-related stimuli can affect motor readiness or the ability to inhibit action. In this preliminary study, we assessed whether different levels of health anxiety and anxiety sensitivity affect disposition to action in response to positive and negative health-related stimuli in non-clinical individuals. An emotional go/no-go task was devised to test action disposition in response to positive (wellness-related), and negative (disease-related) stimuli in non-clinical participants who also underwent well-validated self-report measures of health anxiety and anxiety sensitivity. The main results showed that both health anxiety and anxiety sensitivity biased participants’ responses. Importantly, safety-seeking and avoidance behaviors differently affected action disposition in response to positive and negative stimuli. These preliminary results support the idea that health anxiety and anxiety sensitivity could determine a hypervigilance for health-related information with a different perturbation of response control depending on the valence of the stimuli. Health anxiety and health anxiety disorder do form a continuum; thus, capturing different action tendencies to health-related stimuli could represent a valuable complementary tool to detect processing biases in persons who might develop a clinical condition.

Guilty Confessions

Recent work on blameworthiness has prominently featured discussions of guilt. The philosophers who develop guilt-based views of blameworthiness do an excellent job of attending to the evaluative and affective features of feeling guilty. However, these philosophers have been less attentive to guilt’s characteristic action tendencies and the role admissions of guilt play in our blaming practices. This chapter focuses on the nature of guilty confession and argues that it illuminates an important function of blame that has been overlooked in the recent work on guilt as it relates to blameworthiness: Blame can communicate respect.

Evaluating the role of Approach-Avoidance Training on action-tendencies in individuals with skin-picking disorder: A preliminary randomized experiment

Background and aimsPathological skin-picking (PSP) or excoriation disorder is a destructive behavior that affects 1-2% of the general population. The purpose of this pilot study was to evaluate the effect of a computerized behavior modification task on action-tendencies (i.e., approach or avoidance) in adults with PSP. We aimed to modify these action-tendencies by having participants with PSP complete the Approach-Avoidance Training (AAT) task, using a joystick to simulate an approach (=pull) or avoidance (=push) response.MethodForty-five participants diagnosed with PSP were randomized to one of three training conditions: (1) Avoidance Training (AvT; n = 15), (2) Approach Training (ApT; n = 15), or (3) Placebo Training (PT; n = 15). We hypothesized that after training, those in the AvT would have the greatest reduction in behavioral approach (i.e., their overall reaction time [RT] to approach pictures of irregular skin stimuli).ResultsResults of the pre-training assessment task revealed a positive correlation between behavioral approach to irregular skin stimuli and skin-picking severity as assessed by the Skin Picking Scale-Revised (SPS-R). After training, a lower behavioral approach and urges to pick were found in the AvT and PT groups, while those in the ApT reported higher behavioral approach and urges to pick. At two-week follow-up, no significant changes on the SPS-R were reported between groups.DiscussionOur preliminary data suggest that the AAT is a promising avenue of research to develop as a cognitive intervention to address an excessive behavioral approach tendency that characterizes skin-picking problems.

Effects of go/no-go training on food-related action tendencies, liking and choice

Inhibitory control training effects on behaviour (e.g. ‘healthier’ food choices) can be driven by changes in affective evaluations of trained stimuli, and theoretical models indicate that changes in action tendencies may be a complementary mechanism. In this preregistered study, we investigated the effects of food-specific go/no-go training on action tendencies, liking and impulsive choices in healthy participants. In the training task, energy-dense foods were assigned to one of three conditions: 100% inhibition (no-go), 0% inhibition (go) or 50% inhibition (control). Automatic action tendencies and liking were measured pre- and post-training for each condition. We found that training did not lead to changes in approach bias towards trained foods (go and no-go relative to control), but we warrant caution in interpreting this finding as there are important limitations to consider for the employed approach–avoidance task. There was only anecdotal evidence for an effect on food liking, but there was evidence for contingency learning during training, and participants were on average less likely to choose a no-go food compared to a control food after training. We discuss these findings from both a methodological and theoretical standpoint and propose that the mechanisms of action behind training effects be investigated further.