Perceived Gambling Availability and Adolescent Gambling Behavior: the Moderating Role of Self-Efficacy

Geographic accessibility has been linked to gambling behavior, but little is known about whether the perception of gambling availability in both offline and online venues is prospectively associated with adolescent gambling behavior. Further, relatively few studies have analyzed the interaction between environmental and individual factors in explaining adolescent gambling and problem gambling. This prospective study examined the association between perceived gambling availability, gambling frequency, and problem gambling among 554 adolescents aged 13–17 years (mean = 15.1, female 47.4%) and explored the moderating role of self-efficacy to control gambling in these associations. Participants completed assessments of perceived gambling availability and gambling self-efficacy at baseline. Gambling frequency and problem gambling were measured at follow-up. Two separate hierarchical regression models were applied to analyze the relationship of perceived gambling availability with gambling behavior and the moderating role of gambling self-efficacy. Results showed that a greater perception of gambling availability was associated with a higher gambling frequency and more problem gambling in adolescents. The impact of perceived gambling availability on gambling frequency and problem gambling was lower among participants with moderate gambling self-efficacy in comparison with participants with low gambling self-efficacy. In those adolescents with high self-efficacy to control gambling, perceived gambling availability was not associated either with gambling frequency or problem gambling. These results suggest the usefulness of implementing regulatory policies aimed at reducing gambling availability in adolescents, and the design of preventative interventions aimed at enhancing self-efficacy to control gambling.

Internet-based treatment of gambling problems: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

Background and aimsThe effect of internet-based psychological treatment for gambling problems has not been previously investigated by meta-analysis. The present study is therefore a quantitative synthesis of studies on the effects of internet-based treatment for gambling problems. Given that effects may vary according to the presence of therapist support and control conditions, it was presumed that subgroup analyses would elucidate such effects.MethodsA systematic search with no time constraints was conducted in PsycINFO, MEDLINE, Web of Science, and the Cochrane Library. Two authors independently extracted data using a predefined form, including study quality assessment based on the Cochrane risk of bias tool. Effect sizes were calculated using random-effects models. Heterogeneity was indexed by Cochran’s Q and the I2 statistics. Publication bias was investigated using trim and fill.ResultsThirteen studies were included in the analysis. Random effects models at post-treatment showed significant effects for general gambling symptoms (g = 0.73; 95% CI = 0.43–1.03), gambling frequency (g = 0.29; 95% CI = 0.14–0.45), and amount of money lost gambling (g = 0.19; 95% CI = 0.11–0.27). The corresponding findings at follow-up were g = 1.20 (95% CI = 0.79–1.61), g = 0.36 (95% CI = 0.12–0.60), and g = 0.20 (95% CI = 0.12–0.29) respectively. Subgroup analyses showed that for general gambling symptoms, studies with therapist support yield larger effects than studies without, both post-treatment and at follow-up. Additionally, on general gambling symptoms and gambling frequency, there were lower effect sizes for studies with a control group compared to studies without a control group at follow-up. Studies with higher baseline severity of gambling problems were associated with larger effect sizes at both posttreatment and follow-up than studies with more lenient inclusion criteria concerning gambling problems.Discussion and conclusionsInternet-based treatment has the potential to reach a large proportion of persons with gambling problems. Results of the meta-analysis suggest that such treatments hold promise as an effective approach. Future studies are encouraged to examine moderators of treatment outcomes, validate treatment effects cross-culturally, and investigate the effects of novel developments such as ecological momentary interventions.

Changes in gambling behaviour and related problems in clients seeking help in outpatient addiction care: Results from a 36-month follow-up study in Bavaria

Background and aimEvidence on the course of gambling disorder (GD) in clients seeking help from outpatient addiction care facilities is sparse. To close this knowledge gap, this longitudinal one-armed cohort study portrays the development of GD in help-seeking clients over a 3-year timeframe.MethodsWe investigated changes in severity of GD as well as in gambling frequency and intensity in 145 gamblers in outpatient treatment in Bavaria using generalized estimation equations (GEEs). To investigate potentially different trajectories between study participants with and without migration background (MB), additional analyses were applied with time*migration interaction. All analyses were adjusted for age, gender, education, electronic gambling machine (EGM) gambling, MB, GD, related help sought before and treatment status.ResultsWithin the entire study population, improvements in severity of GD (reduction of 39.2%), gambling intensity (reduction of 75.6%) and gambling frequency (reduction of 77.0%) were observed between baseline and 36 months of follow-up. The declines were most pronounced between baseline and follow-up 1 and stabilized thereafter. Participants with MB improved consistently less than participants without MB.Discussion and conclusionOur study suggests that severity of GD and gambling patterns improve in the context of outpatient treatment. The beneficial results furthermore persist for 36 months after treatment termination. As clients with MB seem to profit less than clients without MB, improvements in outpatient gambling services to the specific needs of this clientele are required.

Associations between financial gambling motives, gambling frequency, and level of problem gambling: A meta-analytic review

Background and aims: Money is central to psychological definitions of gambling, but contemporary accounts are ambiguous regarding the role of financial motives in disordered gambling. The aims of the current research were to obtain meta-analytic weighted effect sizes for zero-order associations of financial motives against gambling frequency and level of problem gambling, as well as partial associations after controlling for other motives (e.g., coping). Methods: A meta-analysis of the literature through February 2021 was undertaken. Studies were identified from multiple sources (e.g., database search, other researchers). PRISMA standards were followed when screening identified records and extracting relevant data. The data analytic plan was pre-registered. We included 44 cross-sectional studies that involved student, community, and clinical samples of people who gamble (sample sizes ranged from 22 to 5,666), using validated self-report measures of financial gambling motives alongside measures of either gambling frequency and/or problem gambling. Results: Financial gambling motives were positively associated with gambling frequency, r = .29, [.21, .37], N= 22,738 and level of problem gambling, r = .35, [.31, .38], N = 38,204 with moderate effect sizes. Partial associations after controlling for overlapping variance with other gambling motives were also positive (gambling frequency: β = .14, [.05, .22], N = 3,844; level of problem gambling: β = .18, [.13, .22], N = 28,146), with small-to-moderate effect sizes. Effect sizes were heterogeneous and the extent of heterogeneity was high. Analyses of the zero-order association involving gambling frequency indicated that gambling motives measure (greater for Gambling Motives Questionnaire-Financial) and sample mean age (greater for younger samples) were moderators. No other moderators were statistically significant. Conclusions: Financial gambling motives appear to be reliably and positively associated with both gambling frequency and level of problem gambling.

Accuracy of self-reported gambling frequency and outcomes: Comparisons with account data

Objectives: The ability to accurately recall past gambling behavior and outcomes is essential for making informed decisions about future gambling. We aimed to determine whether online gambling customers can accurately recall their recent gambling outcomes and betting frequency. Methods: An online survey was distributed to 40,000 customers of an Australian sports and race wagering website which asked participants to recall their past 30-day net outcome and number of bets. We compared responses to these questions with participants’ actual outcomes as provided by the online site. Results: Among the 514 participants who reported their net outcome, only 21 (4.09%) were accurate within a 10% margin of their actual outcome. Participants were most likely to underestimate their losses (N = 333, 64.79%). Lower actual net losses were associated with greater under- and over-estimation of losses. Of the 652 participants who reported their gambling frequency, 48 (7.36%) were accurate within a 10% margin of their actual frequency. Most participants underestimated their number of bets (N = 454, 69.63%). Higher actual betting frequencies were associated with underestimating betting and lower actual frequencies with overestimating betting. Conclusions: The poor recall accuracy we observed suggests public health approaches to gambling harm minimization that assume people make informed decisions about their future bets based on past outcomes and available funds should be reconsidered. Findings also question the reliability of research outcomes predicated on self-reported gambling behavior. Research is needed to determine the best methods of increasing people’s awareness of their actual expenditure and outcomes.

Gambling and COVID-19: Initial Findings from a UK Sample

In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, the UK Government placed society on ‘lockdown’, altering the gambling landscape. This study sought to capture the immediate lockdown-enforced changes in gambling behaviour. UK adults (n = 1028) were recruited online. Gambling behaviour (frequency and weekly expenditure, perceived increase/decrease) was measured using a survey-specific questionnaire. Analyses compared gambling behaviour as a function of pre-lockdown gambling status, measured by the Brief Problem Gambling Scale. In the whole sample, gambling participation decreased between pre- and during-lockdown. Both gambling frequency and weekly expenditure decreased during the first month of lockdown overall, but, the most engaged gamblers did not show a change in gambling behaviour, despite the decrease in opportunity and availability. Individuals whose financial circumstances were negatively affected by lockdown were more likely to perceive an increase in gambling than those whose financial circumstances were not negatively affected. Findings reflect short-term behaviour change; it will be crucial to examine, at future release of lockdown, if behaviour returns to pre-lockdown patterns, or whether new behavioural patterns persist.

Gambling by Young Adults in the UK During COVID-19 Lockdown

Gambling is a common activity amongst young adults in the UK, and was a behavior of interest during the early mitigation against COVID-19 (first lockdown). The Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) was used to investigate attitudes, moods and behavior during lockdown in England. ALSPAC participants were invited to complete online questionnaires in May 2020, including a set of questions about frequency of gambling and gambling activities which had been asked three years previously. Mental health and wellbeing data and alcohol use were also collected as part of lockdown questionnaires. Gambling questions were completed by 2632 young adults, 71% female, with a mean age of 27.8 years. Overall, gambling frequency reduced during lockdown for both males and females, but more males engaged in regular (weekly) gambling. Gambling activities became more restricted compared to previous reports, but online gambling (e.g. online poker, bingo, casino games) was more frequent. Previous gambling behaviour predicted gambling frequency during lockdown. No associations were apparent between gambling frequency and measures of mental health and well-being. Heavy alcohol use was strongly linked with regular gambling during lockdown. Gamblers were more than twice as likely as non-gamblers to have experienced financial difficulties pre-COVID, but gambling frequency was not related to employment status during lockdown. Online gambling increased during lockdown, whilst offline gambling activities decreased in frequency. A small minority of regular weekly gamblers, who tended to be male and heavy users of alcohol, participated in a wide range of online and offline gambling activities.

Young people who purchase loot boxes are more likely to have gambling problems: An online survey of adolescents and young adults living in NSW Australia

Background and aimsLoot boxes are a common feature in video games where players win, buy or are gifted a virtual box or other container that is unwrapped to reveal virtual items of value, such as skins, weapons, in-game currency or special abilities. The current study aimed to relate the use of loot boxes to gambling problems and harm.MethodsAn online survey was conducted with 1,954 adolescents and young adults from NSW Australia, 59.9% female (aged 12–24), recruited by online panel aggregator, Qualtrics.ResultsBuying and selling loot boxes was associated with higher 12-month gambling frequency and gambling problems in young adults, aged 18–24 (Problem Gambling Severity Index). Young adults who bought loot boxes additionally had more gambling-related harms (Short Gambling Harms Screen). Young women, aged 18–24, who opened, bought and/or sold loot boxes spent more money in the last 12 months on gambling. In adolescents, aged 12–17, buying loot boxes was similarly associated with gambling problems (DSM-IV-MR-J). Furthermore, adolescent girls who bought and/or sold loot boxes viewed gambling more positively than other girls (Attitudes Towards Gambling Scale). There was no evidence, however, that longer-term experience in opening or purchasing loot boxes, a differentiating feature of the survey, is associated with current gambling problems.Discussion and conclusionsThis study suggests that loot boxes may be attractive to people who are already predisposed to engage in other gambling, and females who use loot boxes may have unique vulnerabilities to gambling problems that could be explored in future research.