The Complexity of Synthesis of b-Bounded Petri Nets

For a fixed type of Petri nets τ, τ-SYNTHESIS is the task of finding for a given transition system A a Petri net N of type τ(τ-net, for short) whose reachability graph is isomorphic to A if there is one. The decision version of this search problem is called τ-SOLVABILITY. If an input A allows a positive decision, then it is called τ-solvable and a sought net N τ-solves A. As a well known fact, A is τ-solvable if and only if it has the so-called τ-event state separation property (τ-ESSP, for short) and the τ-state separation property (τ-SSP, for short). The question whether A has the τ-ESSP or the τ-SSP defines also decision problems. In this paper, for all b ∈ ℕ, we completely characterize the computational complexity of τ-SOLVABILITY, τ-ESSP and τ-SSP for the types of pure b-bounded Place/Transition-nets, the b-bounded Place/Transitionnets and their corresponding ℤb+1-extensions.

Religion-State Relations in Europe

Europe is often taken to represent a global exception in matters of religion and secularity and some argue that much of the reason for this lies in the way religion-state relations are arranged. This chapter assesses these and related claims while summarily tracing the character, development, and impact of different relationship patterns in Europe as both ‘religion’ and ‘state’ have undergone massive change over the last 500 years. None of the fifty-odd current states of Europe meet any strict standard of religion–state separation; it can be argued nonetheless that the emergent and identifiable common European model is largely consistent with liberal egalitarian values. Key concepts are introduced: secular state, confessional state, religious state, religious establishment, and separationism.

The Soret coefficients of the ternary system water/ethanol/triethylene glycol and its corresponding binary mixtures

Thermodiffusion in ternary mixtures is considered prototypic for the Soret effect of truly multicomponent systems. We discuss ground-based measurements of the Soret coefficient along the binary borders of the Gibbs triangle of the highly polar and hydrogen bonding ternary DCMIX3-system water/ethanol/triethylene glycol. All three Soret coefficients decay with increasing concentration, irrespective of the choice of the independent component, and show a characteristic sign change as a function of temperature and/or composition. With the exception of triethylene glycol/ethanol at high temperatures, the minority component always migrates toward the cold side. All three binaries exhibit temperature-independent fixed points of the Soret coefficient. The decay of the Soret coefficient with concentration can be related to negative excess volumes of mixing. The sign changes of the Soret coefficients of the binaries allow to draw far-reaching conclusions about the signs of the Soret coefficients of the corresponding ternary mixtures. In particular, we show that at least one ternary composition must exist, where all three Soret coefficients vanish simultaneously and no steady-state separation is observable. Graphic abstract

On Laws and Their Spirit

The Orthodox Christianity had in some respects divergent development from that of the West, which also resulted in several conceptions that might have had an impact on the contemporary legal situations in the predominantly Orthodox countries. In this contribution we aim at examining the impact of two major points of divergence. One is the cooperative Church–state separation, that is sometimes dubbed as the symphonia of the two. Another set of concepts that arguably marked Orthodox church’s understanding of the rule of law, at least in its internal procedures, is the principle of leniency (oikonomia). It allows for an interpretation of the laws in the interest of the person to which those are to be applied. We want to investigate which pieces of legislation might have been affected by these considerations and whether contemporary challenges of the legal system in Serbia can be traced to some of the Orthodox doctrines. We conclude that while the contemporary Church–state relationship, as envisioned in the corresponding law of the country, demonstrates many traits that can be traced to the symphonia tradition, there is hardly any evidence that would support the claim that the decision-making processes in Serbian courts were marked by conscious application of the principle of oikonomia.

Wielding the Big Stick, 1901‒1909

This chapter interprets Roosevelt’s foreign policies as president. It begins by examining the religious background of his support for imperialism—especially the Philippine-American War and the acquisition of the rights to build the Panama Canal. Roosevelt’s adoption of biological evolution and offensive racial theories (as justification for imperialism) are shown in the context of religion. The chapter concludes by examining at length the “Dear Maria” affair, in which conflicts between Catholic politics and church-state separation commitments ended in Roosevelt’s firing of an American ambassador. The “Dear Maria” affair is analyzed in light of ongoing Catholic-Protestant tensions in the United States.

Magnetic Position System Design Method Applied to Three-Axis Joystick Motion Tracking

This manuscript discusses the difficulties with magnetic position and orientation (MPO) system design and proposes a general method for finding optimal layouts. The formalism introduces a system quality measure through state separation and reduces the question “How to design an MPO system?” to a global optimization problem. The latter is then solved by combining differential evolution algorithms with magnet shape variation based on analytical computations of the field. The proposed formalism is then applied to study possible realizations of continuous three-axis joystick motion tracking, realized with just a single magnet and a single 3D magnetic field sensor. The computations show that this is possible when a specific design condition is fulfilled and that large state separations as high as 1mT/∘ can be achieved under realistic conditions. Finally, a comparison to state-of-the-art design methods is drawn, computation accuracy is reviewed critically, and an experimental validation is presented.

Islam, Catholicism, and Religion-State Separation: An Essential or Historical Difference?

There exist severe restrictions over religious dissent in most Muslim-majority countries. This problem is associated with the alliance between religious and political authorities in these cases. I argue that the alliance between Islamic scholars (the ulema) and the state authorities was historically constructed, instead of being a characteristic of Islam. Hence, the essentialist idea that Islam inherently rejects religion-state separation, whereas Christianity endorses it, is misleading. Instead, this article shows that the ulema-state alliance in the Muslim world was constructed after the mid-eleventh century, as well as revealing that the church-state separation in Western Europe was also historically institutionalized during that period. Using comparative-historical methods, the article explains the political and socioeconomic backgrounds of these epochal transformations. It particularly focuses on the relations between religious, political, intellectual, and economic classes.

Public Holidays and the Law

A peculiar feature of the celebration of Christmas in the United States is that its observance and its symbols became and continue to be the subjects of First Amendment litigation regarding the Establishment Clause. It has been frequently claimed, and courts have sometimes agreed, that the public display of Christmas decorations and symbols, and the official recognition of Christmas as a legal holiday, are unconstitutional ‘establishments’ of religion. After the Supreme Court’s created the Lemon test to consider Establishment Clause claims, courts’ rulings under the test have been inconsistent and unpredictable, and the subject of widespread academic and popular criticism. There are reasons to believe, however, that the current Supreme Court is moving away from a strict form of ‘Church–State separation’ and towards a greater appreciation for tradition, history, and practice.

The Virtues of Unprincipled Constitutional Compromises: Church and State in the Irish Constitution

Constitution making – Disagreement – Principled constitutionalism versus unprincipled bargaining – Pragmatism – Church and state – Separation of religion and law – Maintaining religious peace – Drafting of the Irish Constitution of 1937 – Placating Irish Catholicism – Accommodation of protestant religious minority – Balancing religious freedom and religiosity – Balancing fundamental rights and religious influence – Flexibility and adaptability – Pragmatic assessment of constitutions and constitution making