Aspects of change in the syntax of Māori - A corpus-based study

<p>In the current climate of Māori language revitalisation, there is ample anecdotal evidence to suggest that not only the vocabulary, but also the syntax of modern Māori is markedly different from its traditional roots, and that it shows significant influence from English syntax. However, syntactic change in Māori has not hitherto been rigorously studied. This thesis aims to provide material evidence of change in Māori syntax, through a corpus-based study of grammatical change in te reo Māori over the period of contact with English. My methodology involved the compilation and comparison of two synchronic corpora representing the two ends of the contact period to provide a diachronic perspective on the language. Each corpus consists of approximately 102,000 running words of material written originally in Māori. The early corpus contains items published pre-1900. The modern material was written post-1990. The thesis is not only an exploration of the possibility of documenting syntactic change through the use of such corpora, but also tests whether it is possible to do this using corpora significantly smaller than the multi-million word corpora typical in corpus linguistics. The scope of this methodology is tested by examining three distinct types of grammatical features: a grammatical particle (the preposition mō), a pair of semantically related lexemes that appear to be undergoing a process of grammaticalisation (the verbs taea and āhei), and a widespread grammatical construction (certain types of relative clauses). In each instance, the two corpora are compared for features such as the frequency of occurrence, the associated constructions, and the contexts of use. In relation to the methodological questions, the thesis concludes that while these corpora are too small to provide adequate data on individual lexical items like taea and āhei, the methodology did make it possible to document change in the other, relatively high-frequency grammatical features. The thesis also raises the questions of whether the changes identified result from the direct adoption of English usages and constructions, whether they result from insufficient exposure to traditional Māori as a result of the dominance of English, or whether they are perhaps instead the result of internally-motivated Māori language evolution. This leads to a discussion of the likely implications of the changes documented here for the future of the language and the language community. I argue that acceptance of all such change as natural and unavoidable is likely to be detrimental to the future of te reo Māori.</p>

Whakatipu te Pā Harakeke: What are the success factors that normalise the use of Māori language within the whānau?

<p>Despite the language revitalisation efforts of kōhanga reo and kura kaupapa Māori, the Māori language is still endangered. The population of highly proficient speakers is dwindling (Statistics New Zealand, 2013). The Māori language is not a language of everyday use across a range of settings (Te Puni Kōkiri, 2008). Language experts have identified intergenerational transmission as the principal means of evaluating the vitality of a language and a key factor in reversing language shift (Fishman, 1991; Spolsky, 2004). This requires re-establishing the Māori language in the home. Although there is evidence of the re-emergence of intergenerational Māori language transmission, this is at the initial stages and is not yet the norm in Māori society. The process of transferring the Māori language from generation to generation depends on decisions by parents to learn and use te reo Māori on an everyday basis in their interactions with their children. Whilst educational institutions can support whānau and communities, they cannot take their place (Fishman, 1991). Community support is vital because a living language requires a pool of active speakers, in particular those who speak the language to younger community members. This thesis examines the efforts of eight whānau who have contributed to the revitalisation of the Māori language by ensuring the language is transmitted intergenerationally to their children. All but one of the parents learnt Māori as a second language in their adult years. Six critical success factors emerged from the findings that can be utilised by language planners and parents wanting to normalise the use of Māori within the whānau. The factors include critical awareness, family language policy, Poureo, support, resources and increasing parental language skills.</p>

Aspects of change in the syntax of Māori - A corpus-based study

<p>In the current climate of Māori language revitalisation, there is ample anecdotal evidence to suggest that not only the vocabulary, but also the syntax of modern Māori is markedly different from its traditional roots, and that it shows significant influence from English syntax. However, syntactic change in Māori has not hitherto been rigorously studied. This thesis aims to provide material evidence of change in Māori syntax, through a corpus-based study of grammatical change in te reo Māori over the period of contact with English. My methodology involved the compilation and comparison of two synchronic corpora representing the two ends of the contact period to provide a diachronic perspective on the language. Each corpus consists of approximately 102,000 running words of material written originally in Māori. The early corpus contains items published pre-1900. The modern material was written post-1990. The thesis is not only an exploration of the possibility of documenting syntactic change through the use of such corpora, but also tests whether it is possible to do this using corpora significantly smaller than the multi-million word corpora typical in corpus linguistics. The scope of this methodology is tested by examining three distinct types of grammatical features: a grammatical particle (the preposition mō), a pair of semantically related lexemes that appear to be undergoing a process of grammaticalisation (the verbs taea and āhei), and a widespread grammatical construction (certain types of relative clauses). In each instance, the two corpora are compared for features such as the frequency of occurrence, the associated constructions, and the contexts of use. In relation to the methodological questions, the thesis concludes that while these corpora are too small to provide adequate data on individual lexical items like taea and āhei, the methodology did make it possible to document change in the other, relatively high-frequency grammatical features. The thesis also raises the questions of whether the changes identified result from the direct adoption of English usages and constructions, whether they result from insufficient exposure to traditional Māori as a result of the dominance of English, or whether they are perhaps instead the result of internally-motivated Māori language evolution. This leads to a discussion of the likely implications of the changes documented here for the future of the language and the language community. I argue that acceptance of all such change as natural and unavoidable is likely to be detrimental to the future of te reo Māori.</p>

Whakatipu te Pā Harakeke: What are the success factors that normalise the use of Māori language within the whānau?

<p>Despite the language revitalisation efforts of kōhanga reo and kura kaupapa Māori, the Māori language is still endangered. The population of highly proficient speakers is dwindling (Statistics New Zealand, 2013). The Māori language is not a language of everyday use across a range of settings (Te Puni Kōkiri, 2008). Language experts have identified intergenerational transmission as the principal means of evaluating the vitality of a language and a key factor in reversing language shift (Fishman, 1991; Spolsky, 2004). This requires re-establishing the Māori language in the home. Although there is evidence of the re-emergence of intergenerational Māori language transmission, this is at the initial stages and is not yet the norm in Māori society. The process of transferring the Māori language from generation to generation depends on decisions by parents to learn and use te reo Māori on an everyday basis in their interactions with their children. Whilst educational institutions can support whānau and communities, they cannot take their place (Fishman, 1991). Community support is vital because a living language requires a pool of active speakers, in particular those who speak the language to younger community members. This thesis examines the efforts of eight whānau who have contributed to the revitalisation of the Māori language by ensuring the language is transmitted intergenerationally to their children. All but one of the parents learnt Māori as a second language in their adult years. Six critical success factors emerged from the findings that can be utilised by language planners and parents wanting to normalise the use of Māori within the whānau. The factors include critical awareness, family language policy, Poureo, support, resources and increasing parental language skills.</p>

Understanding the Māori Television Service’s Policy and Legislation: The First Ten Years

<p>he Māori Television Service emerged in 2004 after many years of political agitation by Māori for the New Zealand government to protect and promote Māori language and culture. Given the subsequent broadcaster’s role in promoting te reo me ngā tikanga Māori, this research project seeks to answer the questions: what strategies for language revitalisation are revealed in the Māori Television Service’s governing policy documents produced from 2003-2013, and how are the Māori Television Service’s strategies for language revitalisation informed by the operating environment of the broadcaster? To answer these questions, discourse analysis of the Māori Television Service’s governing policy documents, and those which inform it, is used to reveal the broadcaster’s strategies for language revitalisation. These documents are contextualised in relation to the wider Māori language struggle, the New Zealand broadcast industry, and socio-political, cultural and economic shifts between 2003 and 2013. Such contextualisation demonstrates the purpose of the broadcaster’s strategies for language revitalisation, how and why these strategies have changed and how these shifts reflect the Māori Television Service’s negotiation of different stakeholders. Research findings suggest that the Māori Television Service has deployed a range of strategies that enable it to meet its legislative obligations as well as respond to community and industry stakeholders. These strategies include building an audience for its language programming content, operating as a financially prudent Māori organisation, and developing programming strategies in light of technological shifts. The thesis argues that these strategies contribute to the naturalisation and normalisation of te reo me ngā tikanga Māori within the national imaginary, and that these reflect key tactics for language revitalisation as set out in the 2003 Māori Language Strategy. The thesis also identifies a shift from the Māori Television Service’s focus on language programming quantity to language programming quality, and a shift to focusing on te reo speakers over a broad viewer base, across the ten year period of the broadcaster’s existence. The thesis aligns these more recent language programming strategies in relation to current changes in language revitalisation activities. In revealing the competing pressures faced by the broadcaster, this thesis highlights the role the Māori Television Service has played in increasing the symbolic value of te reo Māori, as well as how it has contributed to language revitalisation strategies in sectors beyond broadcasting.</p>

Whāia te iti kahurangi, ki te tuohu koe me he maunga teitei: Establishing psychological foundations for higher levels of Māori language proficiency

<p>This thesis explores the motivations, enablers and inhibitors that occur for heritage language (HL2) learners of te reo Māori. Rather than applying commonly used integrative/instrumental or intrinsic/extrinsic dichotomies (Gardner, 2007), a relational framework for language motivation was applied as Māori are typically represented as being interdependent/collectivist (Durie, 2001). In interdependent cultures, the self is given meaning through relationships with significant others (Brewer & Chen, 2007) and the boundaries of personal goals and the goals of a group/significant others are less distinct (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). It was predicted that HL2 learners would be motivated to learn te reo Māori in response to the relationships they held with significant others, and that these relationships with significant others would enable learners to reach higher levels of language attainment. The investment language-learners received from peers and mentors was expected to contribute positively to the learning process. Thus, a relational and interdependent approach to Māori HL2 learning is articulated. A mixed methods approach was applied to examine the variety of motivations, enablers and inhibitors associated with HL2 learning. Qualitative aspects of the research involved two groups of language-learners. Undergraduate students (beginner to intermediate level language-learners) enrolled in language courses at Victoria University of Wellington participated as well as advanced level learners who were graduates of Te Panekiretanga o te reo Māori. All participants in the qualitative aspects of the study identified as Māori HL2 learners. The quantitative components included both Māori and non-Māori undergraduate students who were predominantly 100 level learners from Victoria University of Wellington. Findings revealed that Māori HL2 learners were motivated to learn the language due to relationships they held with specific significant others. Responsibilities provided significant motivation for language improvement at higher levels. The relationship between te reo Māori and identity was prominent. Societal factors impacted on both Māori and Pākehā learners separately. For instance, Māori were less likely to instigate learning te reo Māori when they were embedded in environments that were discriminatory toward Māori. Quantitative results supported qualitative findings, whereby Pākehā learners who perceived Māori to be negatively discriminated against by the mainstream experienced high levels of language anxiety. Survey data indicated that Māori HL2 learners were more tenacious, and less disorganised with their language studies when they had language community support, and were engaged with other Māori. Findings from this study led to the development of Te Mauri ka Tau, a model that attempts to describe the factors that are necessary to create a psychological platform from which Māori HL2 learners can seek empowerment during times of potential risk. This model also describes the multiple positive outcomes for HL2 learners who reach this psychological space. This study was designed to provide an indigenous perspective to the highly emotional process of HL2 learning. The journey for Māori HL2 learners is complex and relationally interdependent. Through an improved understanding of HL2 learner experiences, the wider goals of language revitalisation can be achieved.</p>

Whāia te iti kahurangi, ki te tuohu koe me he maunga teitei: Establishing psychological foundations for higher levels of Māori language proficiency

<p>This thesis explores the motivations, enablers and inhibitors that occur for heritage language (HL2) learners of te reo Māori. Rather than applying commonly used integrative/instrumental or intrinsic/extrinsic dichotomies (Gardner, 2007), a relational framework for language motivation was applied as Māori are typically represented as being interdependent/collectivist (Durie, 2001). In interdependent cultures, the self is given meaning through relationships with significant others (Brewer & Chen, 2007) and the boundaries of personal goals and the goals of a group/significant others are less distinct (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). It was predicted that HL2 learners would be motivated to learn te reo Māori in response to the relationships they held with significant others, and that these relationships with significant others would enable learners to reach higher levels of language attainment. The investment language-learners received from peers and mentors was expected to contribute positively to the learning process. Thus, a relational and interdependent approach to Māori HL2 learning is articulated. A mixed methods approach was applied to examine the variety of motivations, enablers and inhibitors associated with HL2 learning. Qualitative aspects of the research involved two groups of language-learners. Undergraduate students (beginner to intermediate level language-learners) enrolled in language courses at Victoria University of Wellington participated as well as advanced level learners who were graduates of Te Panekiretanga o te reo Māori. All participants in the qualitative aspects of the study identified as Māori HL2 learners. The quantitative components included both Māori and non-Māori undergraduate students who were predominantly 100 level learners from Victoria University of Wellington. Findings revealed that Māori HL2 learners were motivated to learn the language due to relationships they held with specific significant others. Responsibilities provided significant motivation for language improvement at higher levels. The relationship between te reo Māori and identity was prominent. Societal factors impacted on both Māori and Pākehā learners separately. For instance, Māori were less likely to instigate learning te reo Māori when they were embedded in environments that were discriminatory toward Māori. Quantitative results supported qualitative findings, whereby Pākehā learners who perceived Māori to be negatively discriminated against by the mainstream experienced high levels of language anxiety. Survey data indicated that Māori HL2 learners were more tenacious, and less disorganised with their language studies when they had language community support, and were engaged with other Māori. Findings from this study led to the development of Te Mauri ka Tau, a model that attempts to describe the factors that are necessary to create a psychological platform from which Māori HL2 learners can seek empowerment during times of potential risk. This model also describes the multiple positive outcomes for HL2 learners who reach this psychological space. This study was designed to provide an indigenous perspective to the highly emotional process of HL2 learning. The journey for Māori HL2 learners is complex and relationally interdependent. Through an improved understanding of HL2 learner experiences, the wider goals of language revitalisation can be achieved.</p>