Urban upbringing and psychiatric disorders in the United States: A racial comparison

Background: Studies that link urbanicity to mental health are mixed depending on outcome and context. More research is needed to examine whether the urban upbringing effect holds true across racial populations in a large and diverse country like the United States. Methods: We analyzed two large datasets that were administered contemporaneously with similar methods: The National Comorbidity Survey-Replication (NCS-R, Whites) and the National Survey of American Life (NSAL, Blacks). We ran multivariable logistic regression models to examine the associations between area of upbringing (urban/large city, other, rural) and six psychiatric disorders, controlling for sex, age, years of education and income-to-poverty ratio (and ethnicity in the NSAL). We performed these analyses in both the NCS-R and the NSAL separately. Results: The majority (58.97%) of the White sample grew up in the ‘other’ category (i.e. small town, small city, or suburb of a large city), whereas a much larger percentage (39.89%) of the Black sample grew up in a large city. In the White sample, urban upbringing was not associated with any of the psychiatric disorders at a conventional level of statistical significance. In the Black sample, urban upbringing was associated with greater odds of having mood disorder, alcohol use disorder and drug use disorder, but was not significantly associated with anxiety disorders, PTSD, or eating disorders. Conclusions: Urban upbringing was not associated with psychiatric disorders among Whites, but was associated with greater odds of mood disorders, alcohol us disorder and drug use disorder among Blacks. Future research can elucidate how differences in urban upbringing between Whites and Blacks are linked to differences in risk for psychiatric disorders.

Smokeless Tobacco Use among Urban White and Black South Africans

A telephone survey was conducted to compare the extent of smokeless tobacco use and perception of related health risks by white and black urban South Africans. Using systematic random sampling, one out of every 20 phone numbers was selected from the Seshego (blacks) and Pietersburg (whites) telephone directory until 300 tobacco users in each site were identified. Among the white group, cigarette smoking was clearly predominant (290) and only 10 used snuff, whereas among the black sample almost half (46.7%) of the tobacco users used snuff, especially women (40%). Although a majority acknowledged negative effects of snuff use on their health and its addictive character, 42% either do not believe or do not know that snuff contains nicotine and causes cancer.

Construct Validity of the Physical Self-Efficacy Scale for a Black Sample: Implications for Health Educators

Principal components factor analysis of the Physical Self-efficacy Scale and measures of cardiorespiratory function, flexibility, muscle strength and endurance, and a rating of perceived health were calculated for a sample of 138 black undergraduates. Physical Self-efficacy Scale scores were organized into a factor that represented outcomes of fitness in support of the construct validity of the test. Additional evidence of validity was found in application of multiple regression analysis which indicated that nondominant hand-grip strength and sit and reach were significant physical predictors of efficacy scores. We discuss implications of this research for health educators.

Principal Components Analysis of the Physical Self-Efficacy Scale for a Black Sample

Principal components analysis of an intercorrelation matrix for the Physical Self-efficacy Scale in an all black sample of 320 mostly confirmed the original validation study of Ryckman, Robbins, Thornton, and Cantrell who used a wholly white sample; however, the analysis identified items with factor loadings at criterion on more than one factor, one item that loaded on a different subscale, and additional factors. It is unknown whether differences in this sample are attributable to race or other influences. Further investigation is suggested.

Fetal movements in mid-pregnancy and their relationship to neonatal competency

The aim of the study was to investigate the relationship between fetal movement and neonatal behaviour, as well as to compare the fetal movement patterns and neonatal competencies of black and white infants.The sample for the pilot trial consisted of 12 mothers and their infants, selected at between 10 and 12 weeks of gestational age. The black sample and part of the white sample was drawn from the low-risk population attending the booking clinic of St Monica’s Hospital; the rest of the white mothers were drawn from the private sector. Nine mothers satisfied the criteria throughout the trial. Two had to be excluded when their pregnancies were terminated and a third was excluded due to epilepsy.Fetal movement was recorded by ultrasound scanning at 20/52 gestational age, recorded on videotape. All infants were born at full term by normal vertex delivery. The Brazelton neonatal behavioural assessment scale (BNBAS) was performed between 12 and 36 hours post-birth. This assessment was also videotaped.Test-retest reliability for counting and classifying fetal movements was established at 99,45(SF=1.05). Sequential and isolated movements predominated and the proportion of sequential and isolated movements was related to the total number of fetal movements. Higher FM scores were also related to more optimal scores on the BNBAS in the neonatal period. The black infants tended to show more mature patterns of fetal movement than white infants. The black infants also scored better on the BNBAS in relation to optimal postural tone, motor maturity and good orientation/alertness. The number of subjects in the pilot trial was too small for statistical analysis, but the results justify continuation of the main trial.

Sex differences in primary cognitive abilities among blacks, Indians and whites in South Africa

SummarySex differences are reported for samples of approximately 1000 16-year-old blacks, Indians and whites in South Africa on ten tests of cognitive ability. Males obtained significantly higher means on non-verbal reasoning, spatial and mechanical aptitude, and females obtained significantly higher means on perceptual speed and memory for meaning (except among the black sample). In general the sex differences in South Africa are consistent with those typically obtained in the United States.