Conclusion

This chapter summarizes findings from the previous chapters and offers conclusions racial and ethnic inequality, and its causes and consequences, in United States.

The Multiracial Population

This chapter examines trends in intermarriage, discusses how the estimates of the multiracial population are sensitive to how we define and measure this group, describes how views about racial identity have changed over time, and provides measures of well being, such as education and income, among the multiracial population. The chapter also documents differences among multiracial Americans, such as between people who are black and white and Asian and white. The chapter shows that the socioeconomic status of multiracial individuals tends to be in between that of the constituent race groups. The median household income of black-white individuals, for example, is between that of single-race black and white individuals. The chapter ends by noting that we need to learn much more about the growing multiracial population and the factors that affect their health and well being.

American Indians

This chapter provides a brief historical overview of American Indians in the United States, an examination of patterns of identification among people with American Indian heritage, a description of this group’s socioeconomic profile, and a discussion of the factors that help explain this profile. Overall, American Indians continue to experience, on average, low levels of educational attainment and income and high levels of poverty. A legacy of past racism, contemporary discrimination, and continued spatial and economic social isolation especially on and around reservations likely explain the disadvantaged position of many American Indians today.

Black-White Inequality

This chapter documents patterns and trends in black-white inequality, focusing on education, income, wealth, poverty, residential attainment, and health. While some progress has been made in reducing black-white inequality along some dimensions, there has been little progress on others. The chapter provides an evaluation of the factors that contribute to racial differences, reflecting on the theories raised in the previous chapter. In doing so, it also discuss the role of incarceration and family structure in shaping patterns of inequality.

International Comparisons and Policy Debates

This chapter discusses how different countries view race and ethnicity, including different approaches to conceptualizing and measuring racial and ethnic groups. It then examines racial and ethnic inequality in various settings—focusing mainly (though note solely) on peer countries of the U.S. in the OECD as well as in Latin America. It ends with a discussion of policy responses to racial and ethnic diversity, including debates about multiculturalism vs. assimilation and about affirmative action. The goal of this chapter is to broaden our understanding of how different contexts shape patterns of racial and ethnic inequality, and thus to provide a global perspective to U.S. conversations about these issues.

Hispanics and Asians

This chapter offer brief histories of Hispanics and Asians in the United States and examine patterns of socioeconomic achievement among them. It makes broad generalizations about these panethnic groups, while also describing the variation by country of origin where possible. It then reflects back on the theories discussed in chapter 2. The chapter provides considerable evidence that both Asians and Hispanics have experienced upward mobility across generations, indicative of some measure of incorporation in the United States. Asians have achieved parity, or even an advantage, when compared to whites in terms of education, income, and other outcomes. Among Hispanics there is evidence of educational and income improvements from the first generation to the second, and to some extent beyond, but a gap in achievement between Hispanics and whites persists. Whether this gap will narrow in the future remains to be seen.

Race and Ethnicity and Causes of Inequality

This chapter explores the meaning of the terms “race” and “ethnicity” and discusses how patterns of identification have changes. It also explores various theories on the root causes of racial and ethnic inequality in more detail, including human capital and social capital theories, cultural theories that emphasize differences in norms, values, and behaviors across groups, assimilation theory, which is most important for immigrant groups, and theories that emphasize the role of racism and discrimination by both individuals and social institutions.

Conversations about Race

This chapter introduces themes covered in the book. It highlights patterns of racial and ethnic inequality, briefly introduces theories used to explain these patterns, and discusses the importance of changing patterns of racial and ethnic identification. It ends with an overview of the book.