Some Foundational Aspects of Andragogy's History

This chapter offers a vigorous clash for and against andragogy within this time frame but reaching back to ancient roots informing the development of andragogical ideas and connecting with the very beginning of the 21st century. Savicevic from Serbia provided a critical consideration of andragogical concepts in 10 European countries – five Western and five Eastern. Knowles clearly articulates in one place his six assumptions and eight process elements of andragogy. Poggeler from Germany listed 10 trends, which he hoped would be beneficial in future European and USA research. Welton launched a very vigorous accusation against Knowles and andragogy that declares their abandonment of adult education's vital role in fostering democratic action. Draper traced the metamorphosis of andragogy as humane treatment of adult learners. Savicevic's comprehensive andragogy book includes thirty of his works over 26 years and views andragogy as a fairly independent scientific discipline.

Strengthening the Practice and Research Foundation of Andragogy Amidst Some Growing Controversy and Resistance to It

Zemke and Zemke believed 30 ideas/concepts/techniques related with adult learning/andragogy can help toward accomplishing the job as adult educators. Tenant analyzed Knowles' popular andragogical assumptions and processes, while Hartree, Jarvis, and the Davenports considered Knowles' andragogy overrated in its contribution. Not to be deterred, Knowles' published his book The Adult Learner (third edition) and Andragogy in Action, a compendium of 36 positive organizational results of andragogy. Brookfield called American andragogy an unproven theory. Taylor offered a very strong and articulate research-based process model for Knowles' andragogical implementation of four phases and four transitions into learning for self-direction in the classroom. Henschke developed an andragogical assessment inventory entitled: Modified Instructional Perspectives Inventory (MIPI), which is Cronbach Alpha validated three times for reliability, including seven factors of which ‘teacher trust of learners' is the strongest factor with 11 elements describing its dimensions. This chapter explores this.

My Initial Exposure to Andragogy

This chapter shares the author's first exposure to andragogy at Boston University, including the background and research foundation giving impetus to writing this book. Kapp from Germany coined the andragogy term based on Comenius' earlier conceptions stemming from educators in ancient times. Savicevic gave andragogy strength in Europe, shared it with Knowles who advanced it in the USA through application to human resource development (HRD) and viewing self-directed learning (SDL) as most important way to implement andragogy. Hadley developed/validated an andragogy/pedagogy measurement instrument. Simpson validated andragogy in the United Kingdom. Kabuga validated andragogy in Africa. Ingalls validated andragogy's nine dimensions for corporate managers' helping workers keep abreast and up to date with their various fields. Mezirow and Suanmali developed/validated with 174 adult educators' andragogy's charter with 10 SDL items.

Beyond and Into the Future of Andragogy

Henschke observed Knowles face-to-face exemplifying ‘congruence' between his talking about and modeling andragogy. McLagan focused on describing what is new in self-directed learning 4.0. Theriault talks about Aboriginal research recognizing the openness contribution of elders. Kheang proposed appropriate andragogical guidelines for USA teacher leaders in adult classrooms to enhance international undergraduate students' learning satisfaction. A number of doctoral students tested the andragogical Modified Instructional Perspectives Inventory (MIPI) application: Jones with controlling eating habits, Van Iseghem with virtual and hybrid employees in a technology firm, Primm in problem-based learners, Hamra comparing nurses in pre-ceptored and simulation learning, Anderson contrasting lean six-sigma and a combination of andragogy/leadership/organizational learning, Shostak between trial lawyers and jurors, and Curran with keyboard classes in programming and instruction. Also added are the early and advanced levels of competencies for learning facilitator, program developers, administrators, and researchers. This chapter explores all of this.

Clearer Emphasis on Congruence Between Scholarship and Practice of Andragogy Accompanied by Contribution to the Shaking World Economy

Bowman and Plourde assert that teens and young adults with intellectual disabilities could be effectively helped by best andragogical practices coupled with developing facilitator/learner strong, close relationships. Talbott addressed andragogical application in texting-based learning – what she called the next technology advancement in higher education because of its accessibility to underserved students. Savicevic declares research techniques in andragogy need to also include theoretical ground – spiritual values, aims of education, and conceptions of the adult person. Risley discovered that the scholarship and practice of one andragogue regarding the 11 elements of trust were andragogically congruent – an almost perfect match. Freund in a time of a weak economy identified quality andragogical instruction was helping improve 19 auto repair technology programs and thus their graduates' contributions to the economic market. Beard found Lindenwood University flourished as founder Mary Sibley used the Bennis leaders' strategy for taking charge. This chapter explores all of this.

Combining American, European, and World Andragogy Together

Savicevic provided a critical consideration of fairly scientific andragogical concepts in 10 European countries, five each eastern and western. Knowles provided the most articulate American conception of andragogy with six assumptions and eight process elements, tested and refined with 12 entities. Knowles was criticized by Welton for neglecting democratic social action and Hartree failing his promise. Knowles' andragogy was supported from Long seeing its vibrant strength, Griffith on practice, Tough on warmth, Maehl on advocacy of learners, Isenberg on connecting internet learning, and Houle on learner-centeredness. Lindeman was the first to bring andragogy to the USA. Kessels and Peoll brought together such things as andragogy, self-directed learning (SDL), learning organization, and learning in the workplace. Merriam et al. suggested andragogy be replaced with ‘transformative learning' as the new andragogy. Henschke and Boucouvalas updated and published Malcolm's autobiographical journey. This chapter explores all of this.

Prominent Themes in International Andragogy Around the Globe

Reconfiguring many hundreds of historical and philosophical andragogy documents in this research into six major themes was a formidable but worthy task. In short, Theme 1 included Draper's outlining a worldwide historical background on andragogy; Theme 2 emphasizes Savicevic's panoramic sweep of andragogy's development in the European setting; Theme 3 presents a comparison of Savicevic's European perspective and Knowles' American perspective; Theme 4 garners Newman's view of Knowles process for effectively identifying adult learner needs; Theme 5 offers Ingalls' idea of using andragogy in corporations; and Theme 6 supports Biao's contention that only andragogues teach andragogy. Knowles' presentation declared andragogy as a ‘breakthrough' in the adult education field. Draper offered an overview of historical forces influencing the origin and use of the term ‘andragogy'. Henschke and Savicevic bring together ancient sources that are antecedent developments of andragogy.

On the Cutting Edge of Additional Andragogical Developments

Gross addressed nine critical andragogical and four gerontological learning needs that must be met for successful aging in place for those with developmental disabilities. Nukic's research uncovered eight andragogical themes which helped adults learn English as a second language: goals, resources, qualifications, curriculum, environment, teaching strategies, learning, and obstacles. Pagano likens the andragogy of nature as man being like a tree – a metaphor of learning, values, will, and meaning systems. Giampaolo identifies the andragogical process as preparation, climate, planning, needs, objectives, designing, completion, and assessment. Keefe articulates the high extent Tennessee Highlander Folk School's actions corresponds with Knowles' six assumptions of andragogy. Washington showed how the use of andragogy in medical sales training leads to more beneficial corporate results. Cranton led a three-week truly andragogical class, garnering a comment from fellow adult educator, as the best class in which he was engaged. This chapter explores all of this.

Encouraging Empirical Research and European/American Andragogy Coming Closer as Distance Education Grows in Strength

Billington found that with 60 male and female doctoral students aged 37 to 48, there were seven andragogical factors that helped them grow, or if absent made them regress or not grow. Rachal clearly identified seven criteria for implementing future empirical studies of andragogy. Taylor et al. asserted that no conversation on teaching adults is complete without discussing andragogy. However, Grace considered andragogy in the USA and Canada as being complicit in sidelining cultural and social concerns as well as decontextualizing adult learning, while having been effectively dismantled in the 1980s and 1990s. Showing the strength of andragogy through its long history in Europe, Savicevic indicated that comparative andragogy has eight elements that are essential in addressing this scientific research topic. Sopher stressed Knowles was best viewed as humanistic, philosophically. Henschke also found deep captivating involvement in both European and American andragogy. This chapter explores this.

Theory, Research, and Definition of Andragogy

Rosenstock posed andragogy as a necessity in which the past, present, and future merges with theory in becoming practical deeds. Knowles presents his first published iteration of andragogy as being a major technological breakthrough in the field of adult education. Hadley developed a 60-item questionnaire assessing an adult educator's andragogical and pedagogical orientation. Henschke developed an andragogical inventory that contained 45 items within seven factors, found congruence with self-directed learning, and was Cronbach-Alpha validated for reliability three times with an almost perfect ‘bell-shaped' measurement for an andragogical facilitator. Poggeler listed 10 trends he hopes will be helpful for future development of European andragogy and perhaps may apply to the USA. Rachal identified seven criteria for implementing empirical studies of andragogy. Biao found after 25 years of research that andragogical programs/courses need to be staffed by people academically prepared and competent in andragogy. This chapter explores all of this.