Ecological Impacts

In this chapter we examine nature, ecology and ecological impacts, as distinct from the impacts of events and tourism on the built or human environment. This brings sustainability to the fore, and that is a term that has to be examined carefully with reference to the ‘greening’ of events, different interpretations of the meaning of sustainability, and how this influences evaluation and impact assessment. It is also very useful to examine environmental impacts ON events, as opposed to the impacts OF events. This involves an illustration of the event settings spectrum that identifies important variables related to the differences between indoor events and those situated in natural environments. The subjects and objects of ecological impact assessment for events and tourism are examined in detail, presenting goals, methods and indicators that can be applied to the full range of ‘subjects’ – individuals and families or the entire nation. The process of EIA follows the generic IA process model, with a number of special considerations. Methods include the Leopold Matrix, Forces-Pressures-State-Impact-Response model, and carbon and ecological footprint analysis.

Economic Impact Assessment

Concepts for understanding economic impacts, and valid methods of assessment are well developed. In fact, there is so much information available that this is the largest chapter in the book – not the most important. A thorough and accessible reference on the subject is the book Tourism Economics and Policy by Dwyer, Forsyth and Dwyer (2010) as it contains a full chapter on events. Event Tourism (Getz, 2013) also covers economic impact assessment in detail. There have been well-documented problems with economic impact assessments for tourism and events (Matheson, 2002; Matheson and Baade, 2003; Crompton and McKay, 2004; Tyrell & Ismail, 2005; Crompton, 2006; Davies et al., 2013), pertaining to both how they are done and the purposes they serve. Dwyer and Jago (2014, p.130) identified three main types of criticisms associated with the assessment of the economic impacts of events, commencing with the exaggeration of benefits owing to either deliberate manipulation or faulty methods. Attention has often focused on the use of Input-Output tables to formulate ‘multipliers’, a practice which leads to exaggerated benefits, with a number of scholars preferring Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) modelling. Most fundamental is the frequent failure to consider all costs and benefits, leading to calls for more comprehensive cost-benefit analysis (CBA). Most economic IAs have utilized only a narrow range of metrics, but even more unfortunate is the continued reliance on multipliers and econometric models, as these ‘black-box’ approaches tend to exaggerate imputed benefits while ignoring costs and equity issues. This is certainly not in keeping with principles of social responsibility and sustainability.

Basic Concepts and Definitions

It has never been more important to develop professionalism in the forecasting, measurement and evaluation of event and tourism impacts. While there has been widespread acceptance of the sustainability paradigm and principles of social responsibility, combined with serious public debate about the costs and benefits of events, venues and tourism, the problems seem to keep getting worse. The impacts of events and tourism have been studied extensively, yet evaluation and impact assessment have not been given the same attention, so theory and methods are relatively undeveloped (Brown et al., 2015). Hence the need for this book and its companion Event Evaluation. There are generic principles and established methods available to guide professionals in Impact Assessment (IA) and evaluation, but in the realm of events and tourism we often witness poor methods and a deliberate lack of comprehensiveness, transparency and accountability for both political and selfish reasons. As an introduction to some of the important issues, consider these scenarios relating to events and event tourism. There are four major types of IA discussed in this book and these scenarios introduce them.

Built Environment

Built environment refers to the places in which we live and work, the services that meet our needs, and everything humans do by way of physical planning, design, development and controls to ensure our basic needs are met and quality of life maximised. This broad definition encompasses residential neighbourhoods, transport systems, farmland and industrial zones. It is also worth distinguishing between ‘spaces’ where things can be built and activities occur, and ‘places’ which have meaning – such as play and work spaces, living and meeting places, all within social and cultural value systems. Impacts of tourism and events on the built environment are of increasing importance, particularly because so many cities have pursued tourism and culture-based development or re-positioning strategies. There are many examples of using events, venues, iconic architecture, tourism and culture synergistically, with profound effects on the urban landscape, its image and liveability. In small towns the impacts of development can be more noticeable and have more profound impacts on residents. In the literature on events and the built environment the focus has often been on the effects of mega events that require enormous investment in infrastructure and venues. However, construction and operation of sport arenas and stadia, major arts and culture facilities, as well as convention and exhibition centres all have profound implications for cities. In this chapter the starting point is a discussion of the roles of events and venues in urban development and renewal, a theme that incorporates the concepts of liveability (or quality of life), community development, healthy and creative cities. A second theme is the use of public spaces by events, looking at both the positives and negatives. The influence of the environment upon events and tourism has to be mentioned, although it is not part of the objects of impact assessment considered in this book. Within ‘environmental psychology’ there is the principle of ‘setting affordances’, meaning what the environment allows (or lends itself to) by way of events and tourism. For example, many urban spaces with heritage status and unique design are popular venues for festivals and other events, but with possible negative impacts owing to crowd activities and, over time, the accompanying change in the character of the place. Parks and streets lend themselves to parades and open-air events, but at a potential cost. Attention is then directed at place making and place marketing and the interdependent elements of image, reputation, positioning and brand. In recent years the communicative properties of events have come to the fore, and in many cases even replacing the emphasis on events as attractions. We live in a networked world, with mass and social media presenting global opportunities to both market events (especially to special interest segments) and to exploit events and related images for broader political, economic and social purposes. Completing this chapter is a case study from Rudi Hartmann about events and the evolution of the resort town of Vail, Colorado. A number of themes are reinforced, and new theoretical perspectives introduced.

Conclusions

The first part of this chapter is devoted to discussing CBA and offering a more comprehensive approach that employs selected Key Impact Indicators presented throughout this book. In the second part the BACE model is presented as a framework for integrating evaluation and impact assessment within a strategic planning process. Often CBA is done only for the economic dimension, in monetary terms, and as part of forecasting or a feasibility study. The triple-impact-assessment method of Andersson and Lundberg (2013) has been developed to overcome the incommensurability problem (i.e., different measures for different impact objects), but it is not always acceptable to express all costs and benefits in monetary terms. The Event Compass, as discussed in the companion book, follows a goal-attainment approach that does not require comparable measures for each impact dimension.

Social Impact Assessment

Social and cultural change can occur slowly, sometimes invisibly, and in many directions at once. It will usually be difficult to differentiate the changes caused or influenced by events and tourism from wider forces and trends in society. The approach taken in this chapter is to first define social impacts and social impact assessment, then examine the wide range of social impacts that could be the subjects of SIA. A series of figures presents types of social impacts that should be considered for the major subjects of IA, starting with individuals and ending with whole societies. In each of these tables there are suggested goals, methods and indicators. Specific types of social impact are expressed as goal statements, mostly benefits to achieve. The SIA process is then discussed, including methods of particular relevance to SIA for events and tourism. Special attention is given to the concept of social capital and how it can be assessed. Not only is social capital an important topic in the literature and apparently of interest to many policy makers, but exploring how to measure this concept is indicative of the challenges related to other social and cultural theories and concepts. Refer back to Chapter 3 for a parallel discussion of how to construct a theory of change model for social integration and inclusion. For related history and topical overviews, readers are encouraged to consult books that give the big picture, including Exploring the Social Impacts of Events, edited by Richards et al. (2013), and Event Studies by Getz and Page (3d. ed., 2016).

Theory

Outcomes theory incorporates a systems approach to planning, and builds evaluation and impact assessment into the management process. It corresponds with the approach taken in the companion book Event Evaluation and particularly with the Event Compass as a comprehensive approach to planning and evaluation. To put it into IA practice, a logic model or theory of change model is required. The nature of evidence is then considered. It is of critical importance when it comes to measurement and the use of indicators, as the question of “what constitutes acceptable evidence?” will frequently arise in the undertaking and interpretation of impact assessments. The forces-pressures-state-impacts-response model (FPSIR) is then presented. It provides a cyclical framework in which specific types of impact can be addressed by examining general forces and more specific trends that lead to pressures on the environment, economy or society. Specific impacts can then be viewed within a context that examines causes, followed by consideration of how people and systems respond to impacts. The chapter ends with another planning model, Limits of Acceptable Change, which introduces several interrelated concepts that impact assessors need to be familiar with: capacity; tipping points; cumulative impacts; risk and uncertainty; precautionary principle. Why planning models? Evaluation and impact assessment are seldom if ever conducted without reference to plans, strategies or policies. The results have to be used in practice, plus some contribution to theory is always possible. When goals are specified and indicators determined in advance, evaluators and impact assessors know what they are looking for.

Cultural Impacts

Cultural impact assessment (CIA) is often combined with social impacts, but there are often very good reasons for a separate approach. CIA is especially relevant for festivals and cultural celebrations, and any event featuring ethnic, indigenous and multicultural themes, or events and tourism located in sensitive cultural communities. This chapter starts with definitions of culture and its elements, leading to an overview of the main related themes found in the tourism and event literature. A set of goals, related methods and key impact indicators is presented as a way to begin thinking about cultural impact assessment. The process and methods of CIA is then detailed, incorporating concepts and methods from earlier chapters.

Impact Assessment Process, Measures and Methods

We start with four planning or process models: one for forecasting impacts (the kind usually required by legislation for major projects); one for post-event or post-development IA; one of retrospective assessments of the impacts of events and tourism on a given state of the economy, environment or society; and another for strategic impact assessment (for policies, programmes and strategies). Figure 3.1 compares these models, with the ten steps in the forecasting model being the benchmark. Then a range of generic methods or tools are presented, all of which can be adapted for many possible applications. Most basic is the IA Matrix, generally used to break down a project into its components and identify possible impacts of each. Other generic methods include flowcharts, checklists, mapping, decision trees, scenarios, consultations, forecasting with simulations, and trend analysis. Logic and TOC models have been explained in the previous chapter. Additional methods are discussed in the ensuing chapters, more pertinent to social, cultural, ecological, built-environment or economic impacts.