Sources of vitamin D for humans

International Journal for Vitamin and Nutrition Research ◽

10.1024/0300-9831/a000733 ◽

2021 ◽

Author(s):

Evgen Benedik

Keyword(s):

Vitamin D ◽

Dietary Supplements ◽

Current Knowledge ◽

Vitamin D Insufficiency ◽

Ultraviolet B ◽

Dietary Vitamin ◽

Fortified Foods ◽

Fortified Food ◽

25 Hydroxy Vitamin D ◽

Different Sources

Abstract. Both vitamin D insufficiency and deficiency are now well-documented worldwide in relation to human health, and this has raised interest in vitamin D research. The aim of this article is therefore to review the literature on sources of vitamin D. It can be endogenously synthesised under ultraviolet B radiation in the skin, or ingested through dietary supplements and dietary sources, which include food of animal and plant origin, as well as fortified foods. Vitamin D is mainly found in two forms, D3 (cholecalciferol) and D2 (ergocalciferol). In addition to the D3 and D2 forms of vitamin D, 25-hydroxy vitamin D also contributes significantly to dietary vitamin D intake. It is found in many animal-derived products. Fortified food can contain D3 or D2 forms or vitamin D metabolite 25-hydroxy vitamin D. Not many foods are a rich source (> 4 μg/100 g) of vitamin D (D represents D3 and/or D2), e.g., many but not all fish (5–25 μg/100 g), mushrooms (21.1–58.7 μg/100 g), Reindeer lichen (87 μg/100 g) and fish liver oils (250 μg/100 g). Other dietary sources are cheese, beef liver and eggs (1.3–2.9 μg/100 g), dark chocolate (4 μg/100 g), as well as fortified foods (milk, yoghurt, fat spreads, orange juice, breakfast grains, plant-based beverages). Since an adequate intake of vitamin D (15 μg/day set by the European Food Safety Authority) is hard to achieve through diet alone, dietary supplements of vitamin D are usually recommended. This review summarizes current knowledge about different sources of vitamin D for humans.

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Short-Term Outcomes of Parathyroidectomy in Patients With or Without 25-Hydroxy Vitamin D Insufficiency

Journal of Surgical Research ◽

10.1016/j.jss.2007.06.009 ◽

2007 ◽

Vol 143 (1) ◽

pp. 145-150 ◽

Cited By ~ 21

Author(s):

Todd D. Beyer ◽

Emery L. Chen ◽

Naris Nilubol ◽

Richard A. Prinz ◽

Carmen C. Solorzano

Keyword(s):

Vitamin D ◽

Vitamin D Insufficiency ◽

Short Term ◽

25 Hydroxy Vitamin D

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Role of pregnancy and obesity on vitamin D status, transport, and metabolism in baboons

AJP Endocrinology and Metabolism ◽

10.1152/ajpendo.00208.2018 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 316 (1) ◽

pp. E63-E72

Author(s):

Eugenia Mata-Greenwood ◽

Hillary F. Huber ◽

Cun Li ◽

Peter W. Nathanielsz

Keyword(s):

Vitamin D ◽

Maternal Obesity ◽

Subcutaneous Fat ◽

Placental Tissue ◽

Vitamin D Insufficiency ◽

Primate Species ◽

Vitamin D Status ◽

Vitamin D Levels ◽

25 Hydroxy Vitamin D ◽

Kidney Liver

Human studies show that obesity is associated with vitamin D insufficiency, which contributes to obesity-related disorders. Our aim was to elucidate the regulation of vitamin D during pregnancy and obesity in a nonhuman primate species. We studied lean and obese nonpregnant and pregnant baboons. Plasma 25-hydroxy vitamin D (25-OH-D) and 1α,25-(OH)2-D metabolites were analyzed using ELISA. Vitamin D-related gene expression was studied in maternal kidney, liver, subcutaneous fat, and placental tissue using real-time PCR and immunoblotting. Pregnancy was associated with an increase in plasma bioactive vitamin D levels compared with nonpregnant baboons in both lean and obese groups. Pregnant baboons had lower renal 24-hydroxylase CYP24A1 protein and chromatin-bound vitamin D receptor (VDR) than nonpregnant baboons. In contrast, pregnancy upregulated the expression of CYP24A1 and VDR in subcutaneous adipose tissue. Obesity decreased vitamin D status in pregnant baboons (162 ± 17 vs. 235 ± 28 nM for 25-OH-D, 671 ± 12 vs. 710 ± 10 pM for 1α,25-(OH)2-D; obese vs. lean pregnant baboons, P < 0.05). Lower vitamin D status correlated with decreased maternal renal expression of the vitamin D transporter cubulin and the 1α-hydroxylase CYP27B1. Maternal obesity also induced placental downregulation of the transporter megalin (LRP2), CYP27B1, the 25-hydroxylase CYP2J2, and VDR. We conclude that baboons represent a novel species to evaluate vitamin D regulation. Both pregnancy and obesity altered vitamin D status. Obesity-induced downregulation of vitamin D transport and bioactivation genes are novel mechanisms of obesity-induced vitamin D regulation.

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Dietary Intake of Vitamin D from Dairy Products Reduces the Risk of Osteoporosis

Nutrients ◽

10.3390/nu12061743 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 12 (6) ◽

pp. 1743 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

Valeria Polzonetti ◽

Stefania Pucciarelli ◽

Silvia Vincenzetti ◽

Paolo Polidori

Keyword(s):

Vitamin D ◽

Older People ◽

Dietary Intake ◽

Vitamin D3 ◽

Calcium Absorption ◽

Daily Intake ◽

Winter Season ◽

The United States ◽

Ultraviolet B ◽

Dietary Vitamin

Background: Vitamin D and calcium are important dietary compounds that affect bone mass, even if other minerals (potassium, zinc, etc.) and vitamins (A, C and K) are also involved. Vitamin D and certain minerals, in fact, play an important role in calcium homeostasis and calcium absorption. Hip fracture incidence is higher in Europe and the United States, where calcium is frequently included in the human diet; while the occurrence of these fractures is lower in developing countries, where diets are often poor in calcium. This condition is named the “calcium paradox”, and may be partially explained by phosphate toxicity, which can negatively affect mineral metabolism. It is important to maintain correct dietary calcium-phosphate balance in order to have a healthy life, reducing the risk of osteoporotic fractures in older people. Vitamin D can also act as a hormone; vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol) is derived from the UV-B radiation of ergosterol, the natural vitamin D precursor detected in plants, fungi, and invertebrates. Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) is synthesized by sunlight exposure from 7-dehydrocholesterol, a precursor of cholesterol that can also act as provitamin D3. Dietary intake of vitamin D3 is essential when the skin is exposed for short periods to ultraviolet B light (UV-B), a category of invisible light rays such as UV-A and UV-C. This can be considered the usual situation in northern latitudes during the winter season, or the typical lifestyle for older people and/or for people with very white delicate skin. The actual recommended daily intake of dietary vitamin D is strictly correlated with age, ranging from 5 μg for infants, children, teenagers, and adults—including pregnant and lactating women—to 15 μg for people over 65 years.

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Vitamin D intake of Dutch infants from the combination of (fortified) foods, infant formula, and dietary supplements

European Journal of Nutrition ◽

10.1007/s00394-015-1102-z ◽

2015 ◽

Vol 56 (2) ◽

pp. 581-590 ◽

Cited By ~ 9

Author(s):

Janneke Verkaik-Kloosterman ◽

Marja H. Beukers ◽

Martine Jansen-van der Vliet ◽

Marga C. Ocké

Keyword(s):

Vitamin D ◽

Dietary Supplements ◽

Infant Formula ◽

Fortified Foods ◽

Vitamin D Intake

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Vitamin D Status Among Male Late Adolescents Living in Southern Switzerland: Role of Body Composition and Lifestyle

Nutrients ◽

10.3390/nu11112727 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 11 (11) ◽

pp. 2727 ◽

Cited By ~ 3

Author(s):

Andrea Rabufetti ◽

Gregorio P. Milani ◽

Sebastiano A. G. Lava ◽

Valeria Edefonti ◽

Mario G. Bianchetti ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Physical Activity ◽

Vitamin D ◽

Body Fat ◽

Vitamin D Insufficiency ◽

Body Fat Percentage ◽

Vitamin D Status ◽

Late Adolescents ◽

Recreational Physical Activity ◽

Fat Percentage ◽

25 Hydroxy Vitamin D

Background: Poor vitamin D status is a worldwide health problem. Yet, knowledge about vitamin D status among adolescents in Southern Europe is limited. This study investigated concentrations and modulating factors of vitamin D in a healthy population of male late adolescents living in Southern Switzerland. Methods: All apparently healthy subjects attending for the medical evaluation before the compulsory military service in Southern Switzerland during 2014-2016 were eligible. Dark-skin subjects, subjects on vitamin D supplementation or managed with diseases or drugs involved in vitamin D metabolism were excluded. Anthropometric measurements (body height, weight, fat percentage, mid-upper arm and waist circumference) and blood sampling for total 25-hydroxy-vitamin D, total cholesterol and ferritin concentrations testing, were collected. Participants filled in a structured questionnaire addressing their lifestyle. Characteristics of the subjects with adequate (≥50 nmol/L–≤250 nmol/L) and insufficient (<50 nmol/L) vitamin D values were compared by Kruskal-Wallis test or χ2 test. Odds ratios for 25-hydroxy-vitamin D insufficiency were calculated by univariate and AIC-selected multiple logistic regression models. Results: A total of 1045 subjects volunteered to participate in the study. Insufficient concentrations of vitamin D were detected in 184 (17%). The season of measurement was the most significant factor associated with vitamin D levels and approximately 40% of subjects presented insufficient vitamin D concentrations in winter. After model selection, body fat percentage, frequency and site of recreational physical activity, and the seasonality were significantly associated with the risk of vitamin D insufficiency. Conclusions: Among healthy male late adolescents in Southern Switzerland, about one every fourth subject presents a poor vitamin D status in non-summer seasons. Body fat percentage, frequent and outdoor recreational physical activity are modulating factors of vitamin D status in this population.

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Vitamin D Status in Japanese Adults: Relationship of Serum 25-Hydroxyvitamin D with Simultaneously Measured Dietary Vitamin D Intake and Ultraviolet Ray Exposure

Nutrients ◽

10.3390/nu12030743 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 12 (3) ◽

pp. 743 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

Keiko Asakura ◽

Norihito Etoh ◽

Haruhiko Imamura ◽

Takehiro Michikawa ◽

Takahiro Nakamura ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Vitamin D ◽

Exposure Time ◽

Serum Vitamin ◽

Vitamin D Insufficiency ◽

Uv Exposure ◽

Dietary Vitamin ◽

Hydroxyvitamin D ◽

Vitamin D Intake ◽

25 Hydroxyvitamin D ◽

Ultraviolet Ray

Vitamin D insufficiency/deficiency is prevalent worldwide. We investigated the effect of vitamin D intake and ultraviolet ray (UV) exposure on serum vitamin D concentration in Japan. A total of 107 healthy adult participants were recruited from Hokkaido (43° N) and Kumamoto (33° N) prefectures. All participants undertook surveys in both summer and winter. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D3) was examined, and vitamin D intake was assessed with a diet history questionnaire. UV exposure was measured with a wearable UV dosimeter. Regression analysis was performed to investigate the relationship between these factors, with covariates such as sun avoidance behavior. The prevalence of vitamin D insufficiency (serum 25(OH)D3; 12 ng/mL (30 nmol/L) ≤ and <20 ng/mL (50 nmol/L))/deficiency (<12 ng/mL) was 47.7% in summer and 82.2% in winter. UV exposure time was short in Kumamoto (the urban area), at 11.6 min in summer and 14.9 min in winter. In Hokkaido (the rural area), UV exposure time was 58.3 min in summer and 22.5 min in winter. Vitamin D intake was significantly associated with serum 25(OH)D3, and a 1 μg/1000kcal increase in intake was necessary to increase 25(OH)D3 by 0.88 ng/mL in summer and by 1.7 ng/mL in winter. UV exposure time was significantly associated with serum 25(OH)D3 in summer, and a 10 min increase in UV exposure time was necessary to increase 25(OH)D3 by 0.47 ng/mL. Although consideration of personal occupation and lifestyle is necessary, most Japanese may need to increase both vitamin D intake and UV exposure.

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Nutrihealth Study: Seasonal Variation in Vitamin D Status Among the Slovenian Adult and Elderly Population

Nutrients ◽

10.3390/nu12061838 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 12 (6) ◽

pp. 1838 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Maša Hribar ◽

Hristo Hristov ◽

Matej Gregorič ◽

Urška Blaznik ◽

Katja Zaletel ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Vitamin D ◽

Seasonal Variation ◽

Vitamin D Deficiency ◽

Elderly Population ◽

Sun Exposure ◽

Epidemiological Data ◽

The Elderly ◽

Vitamin D Insufficiency ◽

Ultraviolet B ◽

Vitamin D Status

Several studies conducted around the world showed substantial vitamin D insufficiency and deficiency among different population groups. Sources of vitamin D in the human body include ultraviolet B (UVB)-light-induced biosynthesis and dietary intake, but people’s diets are often poor in vitamin D. Furthermore, in many regions, sun exposure and the intensity of UVB irradiation during wintertime are not sufficient for vitamin D biosynthesis. In Slovenia, epidemiological data about vitamin D status in the population were investigated through a national Nutrihealth study—an extension to the national dietary survey SI.Menu (2017/18). The study was conducted on a representative sample of 125 adult (18–64 years) and 155 elderly (65–74 years old) subjects, enrolled in the study in different seasons. Their vitamin D status was determined by measuring the serum 25-hydroxy-vitamin D (25(OH)D) concentration. Thresholds for vitamin D deficiency and insufficiency were 25(OH)D levels below 30 and 50 nmol/L, respectively. Altogether, 24.9% of the adults and 23.5% of the elderly were found to be vitamin D deficient, while an insufficient status was found in 58.2% and 62.9%, respectively. A particularly concerning situation was observed during extended wintertime (November–April); vitamin D deficiency was found in 40.8% and 34.6%, and insufficient serum 25(OH)D levels were observed in 81.6% and 78.8%, respectively. The results of the study showed high seasonal variation in serum 25(OH)D levels in both the adult and elderly population, with deficiency being especially pronounced during wintertime. The prevalence of this deficiency in Slovenia is among the highest in Europe and poses a possible public health risk that needs to be addressed with appropriate recommendations and/or policy interventions.

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A Narrative Review of The Role of Foods as Dietary Sources of Vitamin D of Ethnic Minority Populations with Darker Skin: The Underestimated Challenge

Nutrients ◽

10.3390/nu11010081 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 11 (1) ◽

pp. 81 ◽

Cited By ~ 5

Author(s):

Jing Guo ◽

Julie A. Lovegrove ◽

David I. Givens

Keyword(s):

Vitamin D ◽

Ethnic Minority ◽

Ultraviolet B ◽

Dietary Vitamin ◽

Minority Populations ◽

Vitamin D Status ◽

Vitamin D Intake ◽

Ethnic Minority Populations ◽

Dietary Vitamin D ◽

Lower Vitamin

In recent years, vitamin D deficiency has attracted attention worldwide. Especially many ethnic minority populations are considered at high-risk of vitamin D deficiency, owing to a lesser ability to synthesis vitamin D from sunlight (ultraviolet B), due to the skin pigment melanin and/or reduced skin exposure due to coverage required by religious and cultural restrictions. Therefore, vitamin D intake from dietary sources has become increasingly important for many ethnic minority populations to achieve adequate vitamin D status compared with the majority of the population. The aim of the study was critically evaluate the vitamin D intake and vitamin D status of the ethnic minority populations with darker skin, and also vitamin D absorption from supplements and ultraviolet B. Pubmed, Embaase and Scopus were searched for articles published up to October 2018. The available evidence showed ethnic minority populations generally have a lower vitamin D status than the majority populations. The main contributory food sources for dietary vitamin D intake were different for ethnic minority populations and majority populations, due to vary dietary patterns. Future strategies to increase dietary vitamin D intake by food fortification or biofortification needs to be explored, not only for the majority population but more specifically for ethnic minority populations who are generally of lower vitamin D status.

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Prevalence and risk factors of vitamin D insufficiency in cancer

Journal of Clinical Oncology ◽

10.1200/jco.2009.27.15_suppl.9581 ◽

2009 ◽

Vol 27 (15_suppl) ◽

pp. 9581-9581

Author(s):

K. A. Hauser ◽

M. Karafa ◽

D. Seyidova-Khoshknabi ◽

M. P. Davis ◽

D. Walsh

Keyword(s):

Vitamin D ◽

African American ◽

Laboratory Data ◽

Cleveland Clinic ◽

Vitamin D Insufficiency ◽

Cancer Site ◽

Stepwise Logistic Regression ◽

Cancer Type ◽

Chi Square ◽

25 Hydroxy Vitamin D

9581 Background: Low vitamin D has been linked to increased cancer incidence and reduced prognosis. Little is known about prevalence and risks of insufficiency in cancer. Methods: Electronic medical records of all adult solid tumor patients treated at The Cleveland Clinic in 2006–2007 were reviewed. Data extracted: demographics (age, gender, race), cancer site (primary and metastatic, ICD-9 codes) and first 25 hydroxy vitamin D level [25OHD] during the study period. Laboratory data (calcium, hepatic and renal function), medications prescribed (anticonvulsants, antineoplastic, corticosteroids, vitamin D) and treatment procedures (chemotherapy and radiotherapy) in 2 months preceding vitamin D were recorded. Clinical factors were compared between those tested for 25OHD vs not, and those insufficient (25OH D ≤30ng/ml) vs not (25OH D >31ng/ml) by Chi square or T-tests. Stepwise logistic regression identified independent predictors of vitamin D insufficiency. Results: n=39,254. 19,030 (48%) were female, mean age 63 (± 14), 86% Caucasian. Most common cancers: breast (19%), prostate (18%), skin (13%). 2,100 (5%) had vitamin D tested. They were more likely female (66% vs 47%), and to have breast, hepatobiliary, skin or thyroid cancer, than those not tested (both p<0.001). 1446 (69%) were insufficient, and 200 (10%) were frankly deficient (25OHD ≤12ng/ml). Insufficiency was associated with male gender, race (African American), month of test (Feb-Apr, Oct), cancer type (hepatobiliary, genitourinary, pancreas, upper gastrointestinal), metastatic disease, low albumin, high bilirubin and AST, and lack of antineoplastic or vitamin D medication (all p<0.01). Multivariable predictors were cancer type, test month, African American race, low albumin, and lack of antineoplastic or vitamin D medication (all p<0.01). Conclusions: Vitamin D insufficiency is highly prevalent among cancer patients tested. This study is limited by selection bias but indicates need for prospective vitamin D evaluation in cancer. No significant financial relationships to disclose.

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