ABSTRACTThe general stress response (GSR) allows bacteria to monitor and defend against a broad set of unrelated, adverse environmental conditions. InAlphaproteobacteria, the key step in GSR activation is phosphorylation of the response regulator PhyR. InSphingomonas melonisFr1, seven PhyR-activating kinases (Paks), PakA to PakG, are thought to directly phosphorylate PhyR under different stress conditions, but the nature of the activating signals remains obscure. PakF, a major sensor of NaCl and heat shock, lacks a putative sensor domain but instead harbors a single receiver (REC) domain (PakFREC) N-terminal to its kinase catalytic core. Such kinases are called “hybrid response regulators” (HRRs). How HRRs are able to perceive signals in the absence of a true sensor domain has remained largely unexplored. In the present work, we show that stresses are actually sensed by another kinase, KipF (kinase of PakF), which phosphorylates PakFRECand thereby activates PakF. KipF is a predicted transmembrane kinase, harboring a periplasmic CHASE3 domain flanked by two transmembrane helices in addition to its cytoplasmic kinase catalytic core. We demonstrate that KipF senses different salts through its CHASE3 domain but is not a sensor of general osmotic stress. While salt sensing depends on the CHASE3 domain, heat shock sensing does not, suggesting that these stresses are perceived by different mechanisms. In summary, our results establish a two-tiered histidine kinase pathway involved in activation of the GSR inS. melonisFr1 and provide the first experimental evidence for the so far uncharacterized CHASE3 domain as a salt sensor.IMPORTANCEHybrid response regulators (HRRs) represent a particular class of histidine kinases harboring an N-terminal receiver (REC) domain instead of a true sensor domain. This suggests that the actual input for HRRs may be phosphorylation of the REC domain. In the present study, we addressed this question by using the HRR PakF. Our results suggest that PakF is activated through phosphorylation of its REC domain and that this is achieved by another kinase, KipF. KipF senses heat shock and salt stress, with the latter requiring the periplasmic CHASE3 domain. This work not only suggests that HRRs work in two-tiered histidine kinase pathways but also provides the first experimental evidence for a role of the so far uncharacterized CHASE3 domain in salt sensing.
The Blue-Light Receptor YtvA Acts in the Environmental Stress Signaling Pathway of Bacillus subtilis
