China and Russia see numerous external and internal challenges that threaten their security, including Russia’s standoff with NATO over Ukraine and China’s territorial disputes in the South China Sea, and both states are increasing the capabilities of their military forces. In this environment, China and Russia have established a secure border that enables them to focus elsewhere. Russian arms sales to China are important, and the two sides engage in joint military exercises, both bilaterally and in conjunction with the Shanghai Cooperation Organization. They further cooperate on regional issues and space. However, China and Russia have not formed a military alliance, and the memory of past conflicts and the growing power of the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) vis-à-vis the Russian military place limits on security cooperation.
