Renal acid–base homeostasis
The kidney is central to acid–base homeostasis. Major processes are reabsorption of filtered bicarbonate, de novo synthesis of bicarbonate from ammoniagenesis, and net excretion of protons. The latter requires buffers such as ammonium, phosphate, citrate and other bases binding protons (so-called titratable acids). The proximal tubule is the major site of bicarbonate reabsorption and only site of ammoniagenesis. The thick ascending limb and the distal convoluted tubule handle ammonia/ammonium and complete bicarbonate reabsorption. The collecting duct system excretes protons and ammonium, but may switch to net bicarbonate secretion. The kidney displays a great plasticity to adapt acid or bicarbonate excretion. Angiotensin II, aldosterone and endothelin are involved in regulating these processes, and they induce morphological changes along the nephron. Inborn and acquired disorders of renal acid–base handling are caused by mutations in acid–base transport proteins or by dysregulation of adaptive mechanisms.