Defining the Nature of Belief

Author(s):  
Aaron Z. Zimmerman

The author offers a pragmatist definition of belief. To believe something at a given time is to be so disposed that you would use that information to guide those relatively attentive and self-controlled activities you might engage in at that time, whether these activities involve bodily movement or not. This definition is then unpacked and applied to examples. The analysis is relatively straightforward when applied to assertions, but the pragmatists insisted that our beliefs are manifested in a wide variety of non-discursive behaviors, many of which involve the dissociation of attention from control within the execution of a task. Neuroscientist M. Jeannerod’s experiments reveal this complexity. The author argues that these experiments complicate matters, but they do not support “will scepticism.” Contemporary cognitive neuroscience is compatible with a number of different analyses of belief, but it meshes at least as nicely with Bain’s pragmatic conception as any other.

Author(s):  
Zachary C. Irving ◽  
Evan Thompson

This chapter provides an introduction to the philosophy of mind-wandering. It begins with a philosophical critique of the standard psychological definitions of mind-wandering as task-unrelated thought or stimulus-independent thought. Although these definitions have helped bring mind-wandering research onto center stage in psychology and cognitive neuroscience, they have substantial limitations. They do not account for the dynamics of mind-wandering, task-unrelated thought that does not qualify as mind-wandering, or the ways in which mind-wandering can be task-related. The chapter reviews philosophical accounts that improve upon the current psychological definitions, in particular an account of mind-wandering as “unguided thinking.” It critically assesses the view that mind-wandering can be defined as thought lacking meta-awareness and cognitive agency, as well as the view that mind-wandering is disunified thinking. The definition of mind-wandering as unguided thinking not only is conceptually and phenomenologically precise, but also can be operationalized in a principled way for empirical research.


Author(s):  
Frédérique de Vignemont ◽  
Andrea Serino ◽  
Hong Yu Wong ◽  
Alessandro Farnè

Research in cognitive neuroscience indicates that we process the space surrounding our body in a specific way, both for protecting our body from immediate danger and for interacting with the environment. This research has direct implications for philosophical issues as diverse as self-location, sensorimotor theories of perception, and affective perception. This chapter briefly describes the overall directions that some of these discussions might take. But, beforehand, it is important to fully grasp what the notion of peripersonal space involves. One of the most difficult questions that the field has had to face these past 30 years is to define peripersonal space. Although it bears some relations to the social notion of personal space, to the sensorimotor notion of reaching space and to the spatial notion of egocentric space, there is something unique about peripersonal space and the special way we represent it. One of the main challenges is thus to offer a satisfactory definition of peripersonal space that is specific enough to account for its peculiar spatial, multisensory, plastic, and motor properties. Emphasis can be put on perception or on action, but also on impact prediction or defence preparation. However, each new definition brings with it new methods to experimentally investigate peripersonal space. There is then the risk of losing the unity of the notion of peripersonal space within this multiplicity of conceptions and methods. This chapter offers an overview of the key notions in the field, the way they have been operationalized, and the questions they leave open.


Legal Theory ◽  
1996 ◽  
Vol 2 (2) ◽  
pp. 113-120 ◽  
Author(s):  
Donald Dripps

Let me begin by admitting that I am wary of any comprehensive definition of consent. This bias stems from my professional concentration on criminal law, in which nouons of freedom and responsibility play vital roles in a wide range of contexts. In each context, however, one discovers that freedom means something different. A voluntary act is any bodily movement not caused by external force or nervous disorder. On the other hand, a voluntary act, however horrific its results, ordinarily may be punished only if the actor was subjectively aware that the act was wrong. In any event, a voluntary act may be excused as the product of duress if another person procures the actor's cooperation in the crime by an illegal threat that would overcome the resistance of a person of ordinary firmness.


2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Zachary Irving ◽  
Evan Thompson

This chapter provides an introduction to the philosophy of mind-wandering. It begins with a philosophical critique of the standard psychological definitions of mind-wandering as task-unrelated thought or stimulus-independent thought. Although these definitions have helped bring mind-wandering research onto center stage in psychology and cognitive neuroscience, they have substantial limitations. They do not account for the dynamics of mind-wandering, task-unrelated thought that does not qualify as mind-wandering, or the ways in which mind-wandering can be task-related. The chapter reviews philosophical accounts that improve upon the current psychological definitions, in particular an account of mind-wandering as “unguided thinking.” It critically assesses the view that mind-wandering can be defined as thought lacking meta-awareness and cognitive agency, as well as the view that mind-wandering is disunified thinking. The definition of mind-wandering as unguided thinking not only is conceptually and phenomenologically precise, but also can be operationalized in a principled way for empirical research.


2008 ◽  
Vol 57 (3) ◽  
Author(s):  
Andrea Lavazza

Grazie ai rapidi progressi delle neuroscienze cognitive, alcuni ricercatori, soprattutto di area anglosassone, cominciano a utilizzare criteri basati sulla neurobiologia per ridimensionare o dissolvere il concetto di persona – fondamentale in ambito bioetico – in quanto definito illusorio. In particolare, si sostiene che esista un network cerebrale innato, comprendente quattro aree specifiche dell’encefalo, che produrrebbe in modo automatico la percezione di una categoria speciale di cose, poi definite persone. Tale ipotesi si basa su una crescente mole di dati sperimentali, singolarmente presi ben corroborati dalle prove accumulate. Di fronte alla difficoltà di definire con precisione la “persona” nei casi bioeticamente più difficili e controversi, si suggerisce allora che l’idea stessa sia da abbandonare in quanto frutto di un meccanismo evolutivo-adattativo ormai inadeguato di fronte ai dilemmi creati dalla medicina contemporanea. Viene così operata una naturalizzazione totale del concetto per poi suggerire il ritorno a una prospettiva utilitaristica rispetto ai casi bioetici in cui manchi accordo condiviso. Dopo aver presentato nel dettaglio la proposta avanzata da M.J. Farah e A.S. Heberlein, nel presente articolo vengono offerti alcuni argomenti per confutare il monismo metodologico su cui tale proposta si basa, in particolare sottolineando la dimensione storica del concetto di persona, emerso gradualmente e non in modo omogeneo, in contrasto con la prospettiva neurobiologica innatista. Si evidenzia quindi il necessario pluralismo epistemologico che deve accompagnare la definizione di persona. Non è possibile escludere a priori la dimensione filosofica, che resta fondamentale, mentre le acquisizioni delle neuroscienze si candidano a elementi empirici complementari, ormai non ignorabili per la loro crescente rilevanza. ---------- Thanks to the rapid progress of cognitive neuroscience, several researchers – mostly from Anglo-Saxon countries – have begun to use neurobiological criteria in order to reappraise or discredit the concept of personhood, which is fundamental in bioethics, by defining it as illusory. In particular, they maintain that there is an innate cerebral network, comprising four specific areas of the brain, which automatically produces the perception of a particular category of objects that are then defined as persons. This hypothesis is based on an increasing body of experimental data, which are individually well supported by the existing evidence. Due to the difficulties associated with defining personhood in the most controversial bioethics cases, they suggest that the concept itself should be abandoned as the outcome of an evolutionary and adaptive mechanism that has become inadequate in light of the dilemmas created by contemporary medicine. The concept is thus fully naturalised, leading to calls for returning to a utilitarian perspective with regards to bioethics cases about which a consensus agreement cannot be reached. After discussing in detail the proposal put forward by M.J. Farah e A.S. Heberlein, the article presents arguments to refute the methodological monism upon which this proposal rests, by highlighting the historical dimension of the concept of personhood, which emerged gradually and in an uneven manner, in contradiction with the innatist neurobiological perspective. The article then highlights the necessary epistemological pluralism that must accompany the definition of personhood. The philosophical dimension cannot be excluded a priori, and indeed remains fundamental, while contributions from neuroscience are complementary empirical elements, whose increasing relevance makes them impossible to ignore.


2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Christopher R Madan

The definition of episodic memory, as proposed by Tulving, includes a requirement of conscious recall. As we are unable to assess this aspect of memory in non-human animals, many researchers have referred to demonstrations of what would otherwise be considered episodic memory as "episodic-like memory." Here the definition of episodic memory is re-considered based on objective criteria. While the primary focus of this re-evaluation is based on work with non-human animals, considerations are also drawn from converging evidence from cognitive psychology, neuropsychology, and cognitive neuroscience. Implications of this rethinking are discussed, as well as considerations of familiarity, indirect measures of memory, and generally what should be viewed as necessary for episodic memory. This perspective is intended to begin an iterative process within the field to redefine the meaning of episodic memory and to ultimately establish a consensus view.


2022 ◽  
Author(s):  
Silvia Seghezzi ◽  
Patrick Haggard

Philosophers have debated the “free will” for centuries, yet it is only in recent years that voluntary actions have become an object of investigation for cognitive neuroscience. This review begins by attempting a definition of volition (i.e., the mental state associated specifically with voluntary actions) that could be relevant for cognitive neuroscience. We then review the neuropsychology of volition. Alterations in voluntary behaviour in neurological and psychiatric patients first suggested the possibility that specific cognitive processes of volition have specific bases in the brain. These findings counter traditional dogmas that human volition is somehow ineffable, and instead suggest that voluntary actions depend on specific brain circuitry that is accessible to scientific investigation.The second part of the review focuses on the experimental psychology of volition. A number of studies have combined a systematic manipulation of experimental conditions, and recording of brain processes associated with voluntary action. We argue that this combination is most likely to identify the brain processes specifically associated with volition, and we therefore review these studies systematically. For example, several studies link the Readiness Potential of the EEG to preparatory conscious preplanning of actions. Further, a meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies (PET/ fMRI) reveals a distinctive pattern of activations for choosing one among many possible actions - a key element of volition. The medial frontal cortex appears to make a key contribution to both these biomarkers of volition.


1966 ◽  
Vol 24 ◽  
pp. 3-5
Author(s):  
W. W. Morgan

1. The definition of “normal” stars in spectral classification changes with time; at the time of the publication of theYerkes Spectral Atlasthe term “normal” was applied to stars whose spectra could be fitted smoothly into a two-dimensional array. Thus, at that time, weak-lined spectra (RR Lyrae and HD 140283) would have been considered peculiar. At the present time we would tend to classify such spectra as “normal”—in a more complicated classification scheme which would have a parameter varying with metallic-line intensity within a specific spectral subdivision.


2019 ◽  
Vol 42 ◽  
Author(s):  
Laurent Mottron

Abstract Stepping away from a normocentric understanding of autism goes beyond questioning the supposed lack of social motivation of autistic people. It evokes subversion of the prevalence of intellectual disability even in non-verbal autism. It also challenges the perceived purposelessness of some restricted interests and repetitive behaviors, and instead interprets them as legitimate exploratory and learning-associated manifestations.


2019 ◽  
Vol 42 ◽  
Author(s):  
Gian Domenico Iannetti ◽  
Giorgio Vallortigara

Abstract Some of the foundations of Heyes’ radical reasoning seem to be based on a fractional selection of available evidence. Using an ethological perspective, we argue against Heyes’ rapid dismissal of innate cognitive instincts. Heyes’ use of fMRI studies of literacy to claim that culture assembles pieces of mental technology seems an example of incorrect reverse inferences and overlap theories pervasive in cognitive neuroscience.


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