The emergence of the point-of-view of the subject

2020 ◽  
pp. 119-138
Author(s):  
Zygmunt Frajzyngier ◽  
Marielle Butters
Keyword(s):  
Goal Orientation ◽  
Point Of View ◽  
Initial State ◽  
Semantic Function ◽  
The Subject ◽  
Semantic Properties

Chapter 6 defines semantic properties of the point of view of the subject, illustrating the issue on languages familiar to many readers. The category point of view of the subject instructs the listener to consider how the event concerns the subject. This semantic function does not depend on the number and type of arguments with which the verb occurs or on the type of the event described. The chapter demonstrates how the point of view of the subject emerged from the initial state that either coded goal orientation or allowed the proposition to be interpreted as having a goal. The category point of view of the subject can be encoded regardless of whether the subject has control over the event. In German, Italian, Spanish, French, the point of view of the subject is marked by forms referred to as ‘reflexive’, and in Russian, Polish by the so-called short reflexive markers.

The emergence of goal-orientation

2020 ◽  
pp. 139-154
Author(s):  
Zygmunt Frajzyngier ◽  
Marielle Butters
Keyword(s):  
Goal Orientation ◽  
Point Of View ◽  
Initial State ◽  
Effect Relationship ◽  
Indirect Object ◽  
Specific Goal ◽  
The Subject

The category ‘goal orientation’ tells the listener to interpret the event from the point of view of the goal. The goal could be either an argument, such as object, indirect object, or a directional locative complement. In some languages, the marker of goal orientation is used when the clause does not overtly code a specific goal. The Chapter defines the category ‘goal orientation’ and describes some motivations for the emergence of the goal orientation as an overtly coded function. Two motivations are considered: the initial state representing the point of view of the subject and the initial state that does not code any point of view. To demonstrate this cause-effect relationship in the emergence of functions, the Chapter first demonstrates that the function ‘goal orientation’ is encoded in the grammatical system of some languages. The Chapter also explains why the function goal orientation emerged in some languages but no others.

Methodology

2020 ◽  
pp. 23-56
Author(s):  
Zygmunt Frajzyngier ◽  
Marielle Butters
Keyword(s):  
Goal Orientation ◽  
Point Of View ◽  
Functional Domain ◽  
European Languages ◽  
Structural Functions ◽  
The Subject

A prerequisite for the discovery of functions is the determination of formal means of coding within the language. The discovery of functions and motivations for the emergence of functions is based on the claim that each function is a member of some functional domain. A determining characteristic of a function is its contrast with other functions within the domain. The chapter postulates that a distinction should be made between structural functions that allow the listener to identify the types of constituents in the clause and functions encoding meaning. The chapter illustrates the discovery of the functions of the following: the ‘progressive’ and the ‘perfect’ forms in English; ‘reflexives’ in some Indo-European languages; point of view of the subject; and goal orientation in several languages; pronouns in several languages.

The Emergence of Functions in Language

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Zygmunt Frajzyngier ◽  
Marielle Butters
Keyword(s):  
Social Structure ◽  
Goal Orientation ◽  
Language Contact ◽  
Religious Beliefs ◽  
Geographical Area ◽  
Point Of View ◽  
Main Question ◽  
Present Book ◽  
New Meanings ◽  
The Subject

Why do grammatical systems of various languages express different meanings? Given that languages spoken in the same geographical area by people sharing similar social structure, occupations, and religious beliefs differ in the kinds of meaning expressed by the grammatical system, the answer to this question cannot invoke differences in geography, occupation, social and political structure, or religion. The present book aims to answer the main question through language internal analysis. This book offers a methodology to discover meaning in a way that is not based on inferences about reality. The book also offers a methodology to discover motivations for the emergence of meanings. The grammatical system at any given time constitutes a base from which new meanings emerge. The motivations for the emergence of functions include: the communicative need triggered when the grammatical system inherently produces ambiguities; the principle of functional transparency whereby every function encoded in the grammatical system must be expressed if it is in the scope of the situation described by the proposition; opportunistic emergence of meaning whereby unoccupied formal niches acquire a new function; metonymic emergence whereby a property of an existing function receives a formal means of its own, thus creating a new function; emergence of functions through language contact. Several phenomena, such as benefactive and progressive in English, as well as point of view of the subject and goal orientation in several languages, receive new analyses.

A Modified Chair Geometry for Whole Body Counting

1976 ◽  
Vol 15 (05) ◽  
pp. 246-247
Author(s):  
S. C. Jain ◽  
G. C. Bhola ◽  
A. Nagaratnam ◽  
M. M. Gupta
Keyword(s):  
Marked Improvement ◽  
Point Of View ◽  
Whole Body ◽  
Spatial Response ◽  
Body Counting ◽  
The Subject ◽  
Whole Body Counting ◽  
The Buddha

SummaryIn the Marinelli chair, a geometry widely used in whole body counting, the lower part of the leg is seen quite inefficiently by the detector. The present paper describes an attempt to modify the standard chair geometry to minimise this limitation. The subject sits crossed-legged in the “Buddha Posture” in the standard chair. Studies with humanoid phantoms and a volunteer sitting in the Buddha posture show that this modification brings marked improvement over the Marinelli chair both from the point of view of sensitivity and uniformity of spatial response.

Sophie Laws, with Caroline Harper and Rachel Marcus. Research for Development: A Practical Guide. New Delhi: Vistaar Publications. 2003. xiii+475 pages. Paperback. Indian Rupees 450.00.

2003 ◽  
Vol 42 (2) ◽  
pp. 170-172
Author(s):  
Mir Annice Mahmood
Keyword(s):  
Policy Research ◽  
Point Of View ◽  
Basic Question ◽  
New Delhi ◽  
Economic Point ◽  
Scarce Resources ◽  
Is Research ◽  
The Subject ◽  
Development Workers

To implement any successful policy, research about the subject-matter is essential. Lack of knowledge would result in failure and, from an economic point of view, it would lead to a waste of scarce resources. The book under review is essentially a manual which highlights the use of research for development. The book is divided into two parts. Part One informs the reader about concepts and some theory, and Part Two deals with the issue of undertaking research for development. Both parts have 11 chapters each. Chapter 1 asks the basic question: Is research important in development work? The answer is that it is. Research has many dimensions: from the basic asking of questions to the more sophisticated broad-based analysis of policy issues. The chapter, in short, stresses the usefulness of research which development workers ignore at their own peril.

Effectiveness of Flood Protection Project Valuation Methods

2015 ◽  
Vol 10 (3) ◽  
pp. 275-289
Author(s):  
Tadeusz Liziński ◽  
Marcin Bukowski ◽  
Anna Wróblewska
Keyword(s):  
Essential Element ◽  
Weather Conditions ◽  
Point Of View ◽  
Flood Protection ◽  
Costs And Benefits ◽  
Protection Measures ◽  
Investment Projects ◽  
Market Values ◽  
Project Valuation ◽  
The Subject

Projects for flood protection are increasingly the subject of investment projects in the field of water management. This is related to the increasing frequency of worldwide threats caused by extreme weather conditions, including extremely high rainfall causing floods. Technical and nontechnical flood protection measures are also increasing in importance. In the decision-making process, it is necessary to take into account both the costs and benefits of avoiding losses, including an analysis of social benefits, whose valuation of non-market goods is an essential element. A comprehensive account of projects in the field of flood protection based on the estimated costs and benefits of the investment allows the economic efficiency from a general social point of view to be determined. Previous evaluations of the effectiveness of investment projects have mainly taken into account only categories and market values. The aim of the article is to identify the possibilities to expand the values of non-market assessments and categories formulated on the basis of the theoretical economics of the environment. 

Crimes against marriage and family before Criminal Code 1968

2020 ◽  
Vol 15 (1-3) ◽  
pp. 44-59
Author(s):  
Lidia Peneva
Keyword(s):  
Criminal Code ◽  
Point Of View ◽  
Marriage And Family ◽  
Historical Method ◽  
Legal Method ◽  
The Subject ◽  
The Republic ◽  
Criminal Groups ◽  
The Moment ◽  
Structural Point

Crimes against marriage and family are a particular group of social relation­ships that the law has defended properly in view of the high public significance and value they enjoy. At the moment they are regulated in Chapter VI, Section I, of the specific part of the Penal Code the Repub­lic of Bulgaria. The subject matter of this Statement will, however, be the legisla­tive provisions concerning these criminal­ized acts in retrospect. The purpose of the study is to show by historical method and through the comparatively legal method the development of these criminal groups during the periods of various criminal laws in Bulgaria. This will also provide a basis for reflection on possible de lege ferenda proposals. This report from a structural point of view will be divided into three distinct points, marking each of the penal laws in the Republic of Bulgaria, which were in force before 1968.

THE METADIALOGUE CONCEPT IN ITS LINGUISTIC ASPECT

2019 ◽  
Vol 29 (5) ◽  
pp. 721-726
Author(s):  
Yu.V. Kupriyanova ◽  
I.M. Vasilyanova
Keyword(s):  
Subject Matter ◽  
Dynamic Structure ◽  
Point Of View ◽  
Semantic Relations ◽  
Human Cognition ◽  
Main Research ◽  
Key Points ◽  
Research Findings ◽  
The Subject ◽  
Linguistic Aspect

The article summarizes the key points in the development of the metadialogue phenomenon from a linguistic point of view. Some stages of the development of this concept and the difficulties associated with its structuring are covered. The main research findings of modern foreign and domestic experts on its study are considered. Some characteristics of the subject of the research from the standpoint of various pragmatic installations are given. On the basis of the dynamic structure of the metadialogue development, certain principles of semantic relations connected with the dialectical nature of human cognition are presented. Excursion into the history and evolution of the concept is presented. Several types of formulation of the subject matter are given. In accordance with the goal of speech exposure, internal problems of the development of metadialogue are highlighted and the critical points related to solving these problems are described. The rules of metadialogue flow are explained at the level of steps, the success/failure of which directly affects the final result of communication. The prospects of development of the concept research in accordance with various types of discourse are indicated.

An Islamic Framework for Employer-Employee Relationships

1992 ◽  
Vol 9 (2) ◽  
pp. 202-218 ◽  
Author(s):  
M. Ramzan Akhtar
Keyword(s):  
Human Nature ◽  
Wage Structure ◽  
Point Of View ◽  
Employee Relationships ◽  
The Subject ◽  
Islamic Institutions

IntroductionIslamic teachings envisage a balanced society achieved through thefunctioning of Islamic institutions. This paper visualizes three main institutions:ukhiwah, ‘adl, and ihsan. Ukhuwah (brotherhood) promotes the bonds ofbrotherhood, and ‘adl (justice) enforces a system of individual and socialobligations. Islam stresses the importance of meeting one’s obligations, becauseeach obligation has its corresponding right. Thus, an individual’s effort to meethidher obligations leads to the fulfillment of everyone’s rights. This does notmean that Islam forbids one from demanding hidher rights, even though thisdemand does pose a problem related to human nature: an individual wants his/herrights and also some part of another person’s rights. Therefore, one group’sdemand for its rights tends to encroach upon the rights of another group, whichcauses social friction and disorder. The institution of ihsan (benevolence) goesone step further: it exhorts individuals to forego their rights for the sake of others,which is considered an act of piety.This paper will study employer-employee relationships in the light of thethree institutions mentioned above. A framework for conducting employer-employeerelationships is formulated and is then used to determine, from theIslamic point of view, the proper wages. The findings of this paper show thatan economically efficient and equitable wage structure can evolve within thisframework and that such a wage structure would promote the parties’ mutualrelationships which, in turn, would lead to industrial peace.The body of the paper is organized as follows: a review of the existingliterature on the subject, the development of an Islamic framework for employer-employeerelationships, a discussion of the Islamic approach to wagecompensation, and some concluding remarks ...

Subjective Point of View of a Student on Ways of Subject Matter Structure Creation by the Teacher

2015 ◽  
Vol 5 (2) ◽  
pp. 148-171
Author(s):  
Denisa Gunišová ◽  
Jana Duchovičová
Keyword(s):  
Subject Matter ◽  
Point Of View ◽  
Subjective Perception ◽  
Cognitive Frames ◽  
Teacher Work ◽  
Approach To Teaching ◽  
The Subject ◽  
Definition Of ◽  
Level Of Understanding ◽  
Education Process

Authors in this contribution focus on issue of subject matter structure creation by the teacher as an important psycho-didactic domain of education process and how does a student perceive this structure. The aim of the teacher is not only to impart the knowledge to students but also to show them and teach them possible ways of how to understand the subject matter better and how to get to the fundamentals of it. Based on the structure of subject matter created by the teacher a student creates cognitive frames which become basis for his further learning. We pay attention to definition of epistemology of subject matter structure, questions of psycho-didactic approach to teaching, creating structure of subject matter and how does the teacher work with the text. Empirical part of the contribution investigates teachers' preferences of subject matter structure and statistically describes subjective perception of level of understanding of the subject matter by a student influenced by the particular subject matter structure realized by the teacher.

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