scholarly journals Proposal of a Taxonomic Nomenclature for the Bacillus cereus Group Which Reconciles Genomic Definitions of Bacterial Species with Clinical and Industrial Phenotypes

mBio ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 11 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Laura M. Carroll ◽  
Martin Wiedmann ◽  
Jasna Kovac
Keyword(s):  
Bacillus Cereus ◽  
Bacterial Species ◽  
Foodborne Pathogen ◽  
Bacterial Taxonomy ◽  
Closely Related Species ◽  
Important Species ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Bioterrorism Agent ◽  
Current Species ◽  
Species Definitions

ABSTRACT The Bacillus cereus group comprises numerous closely related species, including bioterrorism agent B. anthracis, foodborne pathogen B. cereus, and biopesticide B. thuringiensis. Differentiating organisms capable of causing illness or death from those used in industry is essential for risk assessment and outbreak preparedness. However, current species definitions facilitate species-phenotype incongruences, particularly when horizontally acquired genes are responsible for a phenotype. Using all publicly available B. cereus group genomes (n = 2,231), we show that current species definitions lead to overlapping genomospecies clusters, in which 66.2% of genomes belong to multiple genomospecies at a conventional 95 average nucleotide identity (ANI) genomospecies threshold. A genomospecies threshold of ≈92.5 ANI is shown to reflect a natural gap in genome similarity for the B. cereus group, and medoid genomes identified at this threshold are shown to yield resolvable genomospecies clusters with minimal overlap (six of 2,231 genomes assigned to multiple genomospecies; 0.269%). We thus propose a nomenclatural framework for the B. cereus group which accounts for (i) genomospecies using resolvable genomospecies clusters obtained at ≈92.5 ANI, (ii) established lineages of medical importance using a formal collection of subspecies names, and (iii) heterogeneity of clinically and industrially important phenotypes using a formalized and extended collection of biovar terms. We anticipate that the proposed nomenclature will remain interpretable to clinicians, without sacrificing genomic species definitions, which can in turn aid in pathogen surveillance; early detection of emerging, high-risk genotypes; and outbreak preparedness. IMPORTANCE Historical species definitions for many prokaryotes, including pathogens, have relied on phenotypic characteristics that are inconsistent with genome evolution. This scenario forces microbiologists and clinicians to face a tradeoff between taxonomic rigor and clinical interpretability. Using the Bacillus cereus group as a model, a conceptual framework for the taxonomic delineation of prokaryotes which reconciles genomic definitions of species with clinically and industrially relevant phenotypes is presented. The nomenclatural framework outlined here serves as a model for genomics-based bacterial taxonomy that moves beyond arbitrarily set genomospecies thresholds while maintaining congruence with phenotypes and historically important species names.

scholarly journals Proposal of a taxonomic nomenclature for the Bacillus cereus group which reconciles genomic definitions of bacterial species with clinical and industrial phenotypes

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Laura M. Carroll ◽  
Martin Wiedmann ◽  
Jasna Kovac
Keyword(s):  
Bacillus Cereus ◽  
Core Genome ◽  
Bacterial Species ◽  
Foodborne Pathogen ◽  
Bacterial Taxonomy ◽  
Closely Related Species ◽  
Important Species ◽  
Bioterrorism Agent ◽  
Current Species ◽  
Species Definitions

ABSTRACTThe Bacillus cereus group comprises numerous closely related species, including bioterrorism agent B. anthracis, foodborne pathogen B. cereus, and biopescticide B. thuringiensis. Differentiating organisms capable of causing illness or death from those used in industry is essential for risk assessment and outbreak preparedness. However, current species definitions facilitate species-phenotype incongruencies, particularly when horizontally acquired genes are responsible for a phenotype. Using all publicly available B. cereus group genomes (n = 2,231), we show that current genomospecies definitions lead to overlapping species clusters, and that an average nucleotide identity (ANI) genomospecies threshold of ≈92.5 reflects a natural gap in core genome similarity. We propose a taxonomy for the B. cereus group which accounts for (i) genomospecies using separable species clusters formed at a threshold of ≈92.5 ANI, and (ii) phenotypes relevant to public health and industry. We anticipate that the proposed nomenclature will remain interpretable to clinicians, without sacrificing genomic species definitions, which can in turn aid in pathogen surveillance, early detection of emerging, high-risk genotypes, and outbreak preparedness. Furthermore, the nomenclatural framework outlined here serves as a model for genomics-based bacterial taxonomy which moves beyond arbitrarily set genomospecies thresholds, while maintaining congruence with phenotypes and historically important species names.

scholarly journals Distinct but Intertwined Evolutionary Histories of Multiple Salmonella enterica Subspecies

mSystems ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 5 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Cooper J. Park ◽  
Cheryl P. Andam
Keyword(s):  
Salmonella Enterica ◽  
Bacterial Species ◽  
Foodborne Pathogen ◽  
Disease Outbreaks ◽  
Thiamine Pyrophosphate ◽  
Data Set ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Pan Genome ◽  
Environmental Selection ◽  
The Impact

ABSTRACT Salmonella is responsible for many nontyphoidal foodborne infections and enteric (typhoid) fever in humans. Of the two Salmonella species, Salmonella enterica is highly diverse and includes 10 known subspecies and approximately 2,600 serotypes. Understanding the evolutionary processes that generate the tremendous diversity in Salmonella is important in reducing and controlling the incidence of disease outbreaks and the emergence of virulent strains. In this study, we aim to elucidate the impact of homologous recombination in the diversification of S. enterica subspecies. Using a data set of previously published 926 Salmonella genomes representing the 10 S. enterica subspecies and Salmonella bongori, we calculated a genus-wide pan-genome composed of 84,041 genes and the S. enterica pan-genome of 81,371 genes. The size of the accessory genomes varies between 12,429 genes in S. enterica subsp. arizonae (subsp. IIIa) to 33,257 genes in S. enterica subsp. enterica (subsp. I). A total of 12,136 genes in the Salmonella pan-genome show evidence of recombination, representing 14.44% of the pan-genome. We identified genomic hot spots of recombination that include genes associated with flagellin and the synthesis of methionine and thiamine pyrophosphate, which are known to influence host adaptation and virulence. Last, we uncovered within-species heterogeneity in rates of recombination and preferential genetic exchange between certain donor and recipient strains. Frequent but biased recombination within a bacterial species may suggest that lineages vary in their response to environmental selection pressure. Certain lineages, such as the more uncommon non-enterica subspecies (non-S. enterica subsp. enterica), may also act as a major reservoir of genetic diversity for the wider population. IMPORTANCE S. enterica is a major foodborne pathogen, which can be transmitted via several distinct routes from animals and environmental sources to human hosts. Multiple subspecies and serotypes of S. enterica exhibit considerable differences in virulence, host specificity, and colonization. This study provides detailed insights into the dynamics of recombination and its contributions to S. enterica subspecies evolution. Widespread recombination within the species means that new adaptations arising in one lineage can be rapidly transferred to another lineage. We therefore predict that recombination has been an important factor in the emergence of several major disease-causing strains from diverse genomic backgrounds and their ability to adapt to disparate environments.

scholarly journals Identification of Bacterial Species That Can Utilize Fructose-Asparagine

2017 ◽  
Vol 84 (5) ◽  
Author(s):  
Anice Sabag-Daigle ◽  
Jikang Wu ◽  
Mikayla A. Borton ◽  
Anindita Sengupta ◽  
Venkat Gopalan ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Salmonella Enterica ◽  
Culture Media ◽  
Bacterial Species ◽  
Klebsiella Oxytoca ◽  
Foodborne Pathogen ◽  
Toxic Metabolite ◽  
Toxicity Assay ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Serovar Typhimurium ◽  
Utilization Pathway

ABSTRACTSalmonella entericaserovar Typhimurium is the only organism demonstrated to utilize fructose-asparagine (F-Asn) as a source of carbon and nitrogen. In this report, we first used a bioinformatics approach to identify other microorganisms that encode homologs of theSalmonellaF-Asn utilization enzymes FraB (deglycase), FraD (kinase), and FraE (asparaginase). These candidate organisms were then tested with up to four different methods to confirm their ability to utilize F-Asn. The easiest and most broadly applicable method utilized a biological toxicity assay, which is based on the observation that F-Asn is toxic to aSalmonella fraBmutant. Candidate organisms were grown in a rich medium containing F-Asn, and depletion of F-Asn from the medium was inferred by the growth of aSalmonella fraBmutant in that same medium. For select organisms, the toxicity assay was cross-validated by direct mass spectrometry-aided measurement of F-Asn in the spent-culture media and through demonstration of FraB and FraD enzyme activity in cellular extracts. For prototrophs, F-Asn utilization was additionally confirmed by growth in a minimal medium containing F-Asn as the sole carbon source. Collectively, these studies established thatClostridiumbolteae,Clostridium acetobutylicum, andClostridium clostridioformecan utilize F-Asn, butClostridium difficilecannot;Klebsiella oxytocaand someKlebsiella pneumoniaesubspecies can utilize F-Asn; and someCitrobacter rodentiumandCitrobacter freundiistrains can also utilize F-Asn. WithinSalmonella enterica, the host-adapted serovars Typhi and Paratyphi A have lost the ability to utilize F-Asn.IMPORTANCEFructose-asparagine (F-Asn) is a precursor to acrylamide that is found in human foods, and it is also a nutrient source forSalmonella enterica, a foodborne pathogen. Here, we determined that among the normal intestinal microbiota, there are species ofClostridiumthat encode the enzymes required for F-Asn utilization. Using complementary experimental approaches, we have confirmed that three members ofClostridium, two members ofKlebsiella, and two members ofCitrobactercan indeed utilize F-Asn. TheClostridiumspp. likely compete withSalmonellafor F-Asn in the gut and contribute to competitive exclusion. FraB, one of the enzymes in the F-Asn utilization pathway, is a potential drug target because inhibition of this enzyme leads to the accumulation of a toxic metabolite that inhibits the growth ofSalmonellaspecies. This study identifies the potential off-target organisms that need to be considered when developing therapeutics directed at FraB.

scholarly journals Implications of Genome-Based Discrimination between Clostridium botulinum Group I and Clostridium sporogenes Strains for Bacterial Taxonomy

2015 ◽  
Vol 81 (16) ◽  
pp. 5420-5429 ◽  
Author(s):  
Michael R. Weigand ◽  
Angela Pena-Gonzalez ◽  
Timothy B. Shirey ◽  
Robin G. Broeker ◽  
Maliha K. Ishaq ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Clostridium Botulinum ◽  
Bacterial Species ◽  
Phylogenetic Reconstruction ◽  
Bacterial Taxonomy ◽  
Clostridium Sporogenes ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Group I ◽  
Taxonomic Organization ◽  
Different Strains

ABSTRACTTaxonomic classification ofClostridium botulinumis based on the production of botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT), while closely related, nontoxic organisms are classified asClostridium sporogenes. However, this taxonomic organization does not accurately mirror phylogenetic relationships between these species. A phylogenetic reconstruction using 2,016 orthologous genes shared among strains ofC. botulinumgroup I andC. sporogenesclearly separated these two species into discrete clades which showed ∼93% average nucleotide identity (ANI) between them. Clustering of strains based on the presence of variable orthologs revealed 143C. sporogenesclade-specific genetic signatures, a subset of which were further evaluated for their ability to correctly classify a panel of presumptiveC. sporogenesstrains by PCR. Genome sequencing of severalC. sporogenesstrains lacking these signatures confirmed that they clustered withC. botulinumstrains in a core genome phylogenetic tree. Our analysis also identifiedC. botulinumstrains that containedC. sporogenesclade-specific signatures and phylogenetically clustered withC. sporogenesstrains. The genome sequences of twobont/B2-containing strains belonging to theC. sporogenesclade contained regions with similarity to abont-bearing plasmid (pCLD), while two different strains belonging to theC. botulinumclade carriedbont/B2on the chromosome. These results indicate thatbont/B2was likely acquired byC. sporogenesstrains through horizontal gene transfer. The genome-based classification of these species used to identify candidate genes for the development of rapid assays for molecular identification may be applicable to additional bacterial species that are challenging with respect to their classification.

scholarly journals Tracking the Taxonomy of the GenusBifidobacteriumBased on a Phylogenomic Approach

2017 ◽  
Vol 84 (4) ◽  
Author(s):  
Gabriele Andrea Lugli ◽  
Christian Milani ◽  
Sabrina Duranti ◽  
Leonardo Mancabelli ◽  
Marta Mangifesta ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
New Technologies ◽  
Bacterial Species ◽  
Bacterial Genome ◽  
Bacterial Taxonomy ◽  
Genome Sequences ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Complete Bacterial Genome ◽  
Novel Taxa

ABSTRACTFor decades, bacterial taxonomy has been based onin vitromolecular biology techniques and comparison of molecular marker sequences to measure the degree of genetic similarity and deduce phylogenetic relatedness of novel bacterial species to reference microbial taxa. Due to the advent of the genomic era, access to complete bacterial genome contents has become easier, thereby presenting the opportunity to precisely investigate the overall genetic diversity of microorganisms. Here, we describe a high-accuracy phylogenomic approach to assess the taxonomy of members of the genusBifidobacteriumand identify apparent misclassifications in current bifidobacterial taxonomy. The developed method was validated by the classification of seven novel taxa belonging to the genusBifidobacteriumby employing their overall genetic content. The results of this study demonstrate the potential of this whole-genome approach to become the gold standard for phylogenomics-based taxonomic classification of bacteria.IMPORTANCENowadays, next-generation sequencing has given access to genome sequences of the currently known bacterial taxa. The public databases constructed by means of these new technologies allowed comparison of genome sequences between microorganisms, providing information to perform genomic, phylogenomic, and evolutionary analyses. In order to avoid misclassifications in the taxonomy of novel bacterial isolates, new (bifido)bacterial taxons should be validated with a phylogenomic assessment like the approach presented here.

scholarly journals Orthologues ofBacillus subtilisSpore Crust Proteins Have a Structural Role in theBacillus megateriumQM B1551 Spore Exosporium

2018 ◽  
Vol 84 (20) ◽  
Author(s):  
Julia Manetsberger ◽  
Abhinaba Ghosh ◽  
Elizabeth A. H. Hall ◽  
Graham Christie
Keyword(s):  
Bacillus Cereus ◽  
Bacillus Megaterium ◽  
Bacterial Species ◽  
Basal Layer ◽  
Structural Components ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Indigenous Plasmids ◽  
Crust Layer ◽  
Air Water Interface ◽  
Spore Forming Bacteria

ABSTRACTThe exosporium ofBacillus megateriumQM B1551 spores is morphologically distinct from exosporia observed for the spores of many other species. Previous work has demonstrated that unidentified genes carried on one of the large indigenous plasmids are required for the assembly of theBacillus megateriumexosporium. Here, we provide evidence that pBM600-encoded orthologues of theBacillus subtilisCotW and CotX proteins, which form the crust layer in spores of that species, are structural components of theBacillus megateriumQM B1551 spore exosporium. The introduction of plasmid-bornecotWand orthologouscotXgenes to the PV361 strain, which lacks all indigenous plasmids and produces spores that are devoid of an exosporium, results in the development of spores with a rudimentary exosporium-type structure. Additionally, purified recombinant CotW protein is shown to assemble at the air-water interface to form thin sheets of material, which is consistent with the idea that this protein may form a basal layer in theBacillus megateriumQM B1551 exosporium.IMPORTANCEWhen starved of nutrients, some bacterial species develop metabolically dormant spores that can persist in a viable state in the environment for several years. The outermost layers of spores are of particular interest since (i) these represent the primary site for interaction with the environment and (ii) the protein constituents may have biotechnological applications. The outermost layer, or exosporium, inBacillus megateriumQM B1551 spores is of interest, as it is morphologically distinct from the exosporia of spores of the pathogenicBacillus cereusfamily. In this work, we provide evidence that structurally important protein constituents of theBacillus megateriumexosporium are different from those in theBacillus cereusfamily. We also show that one of these proteins, when purified, can assemble to form sheets of exosporium-like material. This is significant, as it indicates that spore-forming bacteria employ different proteins and mechanisms of assembly to construct their external layers.

scholarly journals Systematic review of descriptions of novel bacterial species: evaluation of the twenty-first century taxonomy through text mining

2020 ◽  
Vol 70 (4) ◽  
pp. 2925-2936
Author(s):  
Fernando Hayashi Sant’Anna ◽  
Keli Cristine Reiter ◽  
Patrícia de Fátima Almeida ◽  
Luciane Maria Pereira Passaglia
Keyword(s):  
Text Mining ◽  
Bacterial Species ◽  
First Century ◽  
Bacterial Taxonomy ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Link Type ◽  
Number Of Species ◽  
Twenty First Century ◽  
The Republic ◽  
Bacterial Characterization

Although described bacterial species increased in the twenty-first century, they correspond to a tiny fraction of the actual number of species living on our planet. The volume of textual data of these descriptions constitutes valuable information for revealing trends that in turn could support strategies for improvement of bacterial taxonomy. In this study, a text mining approach was used to generate bibliometric data to verify the state-of-art of bacterial taxonomy. Around 9700 abstracts of bacterial classification containing the expression ‘sp. nov.’ and published between 2001 and 2018 were downloaded from PubMed and analysed. Most articles were from PR China and the Republic of Korea, and published in the International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. From about 10 800 species names detected, 93.33 % were considered valid according to the rules of the Bacterial Code, and they corresponded to 82.98 % of the total number of species validated between 2001 and 2018. Streptomyces , Bacillus and Paenibacillus each had more than 200 species described in the period. However, almost 40 % of all species were from the phylum Proteobacteria . Most bacteria were Gram-stain-negative, bacilli and isolated from soil. Thirteen species and one genus homonyms were found. With respect to methodologies of bacterial characterization, the use of terms related to 16S rRNA and polar lipids increased along these years, and terms related to genome metrics only began to appear from 2009 onward, although at a relatively lower frequency. Bacterial taxonomy is known as a conservative discipline, but it gradually changed in terms of players and practices. With the advent of the mandatory use of genomic analyses for species description, we are probably witnessing a turning point in the evolution of bacterial taxonomy.

scholarly journals Evolution of Secondary Metabolite Genes in Three Closely Related Marine Actinomycete Species

2011 ◽  
Vol 77 (20) ◽  
pp. 7261-7270 ◽  
Author(s):  
Kelle C. Freel ◽  
Sang-Jip Nam ◽  
William Fenical ◽  
Paul R. Jensen
Keyword(s):  
Secondary Metabolites ◽  
Bacterial Species ◽  
Closely Related Species ◽  
Vertical Inheritance ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Complex Processes ◽  
Marine Actinomycete ◽  
Species Specific ◽  
First Time ◽  
Related Compounds

ABSTRACTThe marine actinomycete genusSalinisporais composed of three closely related species. These bacteria are a rich source of secondary metabolites, which are produced in species-specific patterns. This study examines the distribution and phylogenetic relationships of genes involved in the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites in the salinosporamide and staurosporine classes, which have been reported forS. tropicaandS. arenicola, respectively. The focus is on “Salinispora pacifica,” the most recently discovered and phylogenetically diverse member of the genus. Of 61S. pacificastrains examined, 15 tested positive for a ketosynthase (KS) domain linked to the biosynthesis of salinosporamide K, a new compound in the salinosporamide series. Compound production was confirmed in two strains, and the domain phylogeny supports vertical inheritance from a common ancestor shared withS. tropica, which produces related compounds in the salinosporamide series. There was no evidence for interspecies recombination amongsalAKS sequences, providing further support for the geographic isolation of these two salinosporamide-producing lineages. In addition, staurosporine production is reported for the first time forS. pacifica, with 24 of 61 strains testing positive forstaD, a key gene involved in the biosynthesis of this compound. High levels of recombination were observed betweenstaDalleles inS. pacificaand the cooccurring yet more distantly relatedS. arenicola, which produces a similar series of staurosporines. The distributions and phylogenies of the biosynthetic genes examined provide insight into the complex processes driving the evolution of secondary metabolism among closely related bacterial species.

scholarly journals Loss of Bacitracin Resistance Due to a Large Genomic Deletion amongBacillus anthracisStrains

mSystems ◽  
2018 ◽  
Vol 3 (5) ◽  
Author(s):  
Yoshikazu Furuta ◽  
Hayato Harima ◽  
Emiko Ito ◽  
Fumito Maruyama ◽  
Naomi Ohnishi ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Genetic Diversity ◽  
Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms ◽  
Bacillus Cereus ◽  
Bacillus Anthracis ◽  
Bacterial Species ◽  
Nucleotide Polymorphisms ◽  
Single Nucleotide ◽  
Genomic Deletion ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Large Genomic Deletion

ABSTRACTBacillus anthracisis a Gram-positive endospore-forming bacterial species that causes anthrax in both humans and animals. In Zambia, anthrax cases are frequently reported in both livestock and wildlife, with occasional transmission to humans, causing serious public health problems in the country. To understand the genetic diversity ofB. anthracisstrains in Zambia, we sequenced and compared the genomic DNA ofB. anthracisstrains isolated across the country. Single nucleotide polymorphisms clustered these strains into three groups. Genome sequence comparisons revealed a large deletion in strains belonging to one of the groups, possibly due to unequal crossing over between a pair of rRNA operons. The deleted genomic region included genes conferring resistance to bacitracin, and the strains with the deletion were confirmed with loss of bacitracin resistance. Similar deletions between rRNA operons were also observed in a fewB. anthracisstrains phylogenetically distant from Zambian strains. The structure of bacitracin resistance genes flanked by rRNA operons was conserved only in members of theBacillus cereusgroup. The diversity and genomic characteristics ofB. anthracisstrains determined in this study would help in the development of genetic markers and treatment of anthrax in Zambia.IMPORTANCEAnthrax is caused byBacillus anthracis, an endospore-forming soil bacterium. The genetic diversity ofB. anthracisis known to be low compared with that ofBacillusspecies. In this study, we performed whole-genome sequencing of Zambian isolates ofB. anthracisto understand the genetic diversity between closely related strains. Comparison of genomic sequences revealed that closely related strains were separated into three groups based on single nucleotide polymorphisms distributed throughout the genome. A large genomic deletion was detected in the region containing a bacitracin resistance gene cluster flanked by rRNA operons, resulting in the loss of bacitracin resistance. The structure of the deleted region, which was also conserved among species of theBacillus cereusgroup, has the potential for both deletion and amplification and thus might be enabling the species to flexibly control the level of bacitracin resistance for adaptive evolution.

scholarly journals A PCR-Based Method for Distinguishing between Two Common Beehive Bacteria,Paenibacillus larvaeandBrevibacillus laterosporus

2018 ◽  
Vol 84 (22) ◽  
Author(s):  
Jordan A. Berg ◽  
Bryan D. Merrill ◽  
Donald P. Breakwell ◽  
Sandra Hope ◽  
Julianne H. Grose
Keyword(s):  
Molecular Markers ◽  
16S Rrna ◽  
Related Species ◽  
Ecological Niche ◽  
Bacterial Species ◽  
Rrna Gene ◽  
Rrna Sequence ◽  
16S Rrna Sequence ◽  
Closely Related Species ◽  
Content Type

ABSTRACTPaenibacillus larvaeandBrevibacillus laterosporusare two bacteria that are members of thePaenibacillaceaefamily. Both are commonly found in beehives and have historically been difficult to distinguish from each other due to related genetic and phenotypic characteristics and a shared ecological niche. Here, we discuss the likely mischaracterization of three 16S rRNA sequences previously published asP. larvaeand provide the phylogenetic evidence that supported the GenBank reassignment of the sequences asB. laterosporus. We explore the issues that arise by using only 16S rRNA or other single-gene analyses to distinguish between these bacteria. We also present three sets of molecular markers, two sets that distinguishP. larvaefromB. laterosporusand other closely related species within thePaenibacillusgenus and a third set that distinguishesB. laterosporusfromP. larvaeand other closely related species within theBrevibacillusgenus. These molecular markers provide a tool for proper identification of these oft-mistaken species.IMPORTANCE16S rRNA gene sequencing in bacteria has long been held as the gold standard for typing bacteria and, for the most part, is an excellent method of taxonomically identifying different bacterial species. However, the high level of 16S rRNA sequence similarity of some published strains ofP. larvaeandB. laterosporus, as well as possible horizontal gene transfer events within their shared ecological niche, complicates the use of 16S rRNA sequence as an effective molecular marker for differentiating these two species. Additionally, shared characteristics of these bacteria limit the effectiveness of using traditional phenotypic identification assays, such as the catalase test. The results from this study provide PCR methods to quickly differentiate between these two genera and will be useful when studyingBrevibacillus,Paenibacillus, and other disease-relevant bacteria commonly found in beehives.

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