Inspired oxygen: present, past, and future

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
John B West
Keyword(s):  
Planetary System ◽  
Atmospheric Oxygen ◽  
Easy Access ◽  
The Moon ◽  
The Earth ◽  
Stable Oxygen ◽  
Human Space Exploration ◽  
Inspired Oxygen ◽  
Made In ◽  
Sufficient Oxygen

As earthlings, we take the oxygen in the air that we breathe for granted. Few people realize that this easy access to oxygen makes us unique in the whole universe. Nowhere else in our planetary system or in distant stars has stable oxygen ever been detected. However, the present plentiful supply of oxygen in our atmosphere was not always there. Long after the earth was formed some 4.5 billion years ago, the PO2 in the atmosphere was near zero, and it remained so for millions of years. But about 2 billion years ago, the PO2 dramatically increased to as high as 200 mmHg during the Great Oxygen Event, due to the activity of microorganisms, the cyanobacteria. Subsequently the oxygen level fell to the intermediate values that we have today. Here we also look to the future, for example, the next 50 years. This period will be special because it will include the beginnings of human space exploration, initially to the Moon and Mars. Neither of these has atmospheric oxygen. Nevertheless, plans to visit and live on both of these are developing rapidly. We consider the fascinating problems of how to how to ensure that sufficient oxygen will be available for groups of people . While it is interesting to discuss these issues now, we can expect that major advances will be made in the next few years.

scholarly journals III. On the nature and construction of the sun and fixed stars

1795 ◽  
Vol 85 ◽  
pp. 46-72 ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Central Body ◽  
Planetary System ◽  
Considerable Progress ◽  
The Sun ◽  
Great Satisfaction ◽  
The Earth ◽  
The World ◽  
Celestial Bodies ◽  
The Universe ◽  
Made In

Among the celestial bodies the sun is certainly the first which should attract our notice. It is a fountain of light that illuminates the world! it is the cause of that heat which main­tains the productive power of nature, and makes the earth a fit habitation for man! it is the central body of the planetary system; and what renders a knowledge of its nature still more interesting to us is, that the numberless stars which compose the universe, appear, by the strictest analogy, to be similar bodies. Their innate light is so intense, that it reaches the eye of the observer from the remotest regions of space, and forcibly claims his notice. Now, if we are convinced that an inquiry into the nature and properties of the sun is highly worthy of our notice, we may also with great satisfaction reflect on the considerable progress that has already been made in our knowledge of this eminent body. It would require a long detail to enumerate all the various discoveries which have been made on this subject; I shall, therefore, content myself with giving only the most capital of them.

scholarly journals Understanding Reduced Gravity Effects on Early Plant Development Before Attempting Life-Support Farming in the Moon and Mars

2021 ◽  
Vol 8 ◽  
Author(s):  
F. Javier Medina ◽  
Aránzazu Manzano ◽  
Alicia Villacampa ◽  
Malgorzata Ciska ◽  
Raúl Herranz
Keyword(s):  
Life Support ◽  
Gravity Level ◽  
The Moon ◽  
Earth Gravity ◽  
The Earth ◽  
Gravity Effects ◽  
Auxin Polar Transport ◽  
Moon Exploration ◽  
Human Space Exploration ◽  
Bioregenerative Life Support

Plants are a necessary component of any system of bioregenerative life-support for human space exploration. For this purpose, plants must be capable of surviving and adapting to gravity levels different from the Earth gravity, namely microgravity, as it exists on board of spacecrafts orbiting the Earth, and partial-g, as it exists on the surface of the Moon or Mars. Gravity is a fundamental environmental factor for driving plant growth and development through gravitropism. Exposure to real or simulated microgravity produces a stress response in plants, which show cellular alterations and gene expression reprogramming. Partial-g studies have been performed in the ISS using centrifuges and in ground based facilities, by implementing adaptations in them. Seedlings and cell cultures were used in these studies. The Mars gravity level is capable of stimulating the gravitropic response of the roots and preserving the auxin polar transport. Furthermore, whereas Moon gravity produces alterations comparable, or even stronger than microgravity, the intensity of the alterations found at Mars gravity was milder. An adaptive response has been found in these experiments, showing upregulation of WRKY transcription factors involved in acclimation. This knowledge must be improved by incorporating plants to the coming projects of Moon exploration.

The motion of a lunar orbiter

1966 ◽  
Vol 25 ◽  
pp. 373
Author(s):  
Y. Kozai
Keyword(s):  
Degrees Of Freedom ◽  
Dimensional Space ◽  
Artificial Satellite ◽  
Equations Of Motion ◽  
Triaxial Ellipsoid ◽  
The Moon ◽  
Secular Motion ◽  
The Earth ◽  
Close Satellite ◽  
The Mean

The motion of an artificial satellite around the Moon is much more complicated than that around the Earth, since the shape of the Moon is a triaxial ellipsoid and the effect of the Earth on the motion is very important even for a very close satellite.The differential equations of motion of the satellite are written in canonical form of three degrees of freedom with time depending Hamiltonian. By eliminating short-periodic terms depending on the mean longitude of the satellite and by assuming that the Earth is moving on the lunar equator, however, the equations are reduced to those of two degrees of freedom with an energy integral.Since the mean motion of the Earth around the Moon is more rapid than the secular motion of the argument of pericentre of the satellite by a factor of one order, the terms depending on the longitude of the Earth can be eliminated, and the degree of freedom is reduced to one.Then the motion can be discussed by drawing equi-energy curves in two-dimensional space. According to these figures satellites with high inclination have large possibilities of falling down to the lunar surface even if the initial eccentricities are very small.The principal properties of the motion are not changed even if plausible values ofJ3andJ4of the Moon are included.This paper has been published in Publ. astr. Soc.Japan15, 301, 1963.

Formation of Lunar Craters and Bright Rays as a Result of Meteorite Impacts

1962 ◽  
Vol 14 ◽  
pp. 415-418
Author(s):  
K. P. Stanyukovich ◽  
V. A. Bronshten
Keyword(s):  
Explosive Charge ◽  
The Moon ◽  
Meteorite Impacts ◽  
The Earth ◽  
Lunar Craters ◽  
The Impact

The phenomena accompanying the impact of large meteorites on the surface of the Moon or of the Earth can be examined on the basis of the theory of explosive phenomena if we assume that, instead of an exploding meteorite moving inside the rock, we have an explosive charge (equivalent in energy), situated at a certain distance under the surface.

The Origin of the Moon

1962 ◽  
Vol 14 ◽  
pp. 149-155 ◽  
Author(s):  
E. L. Ruskol
Keyword(s):  
Chemical Composition ◽  
Solar System ◽  
The Moon ◽  
The Earth ◽  
The Difference ◽  
Origin Of The Moon

The difference between average densities of the Moon and Earth was interpreted in the preceding report by Professor H. Urey as indicating a difference in their chemical composition. Therefore, Urey assumes the Moon's formation to have taken place far away from the Earth, under conditions differing substantially from the conditions of Earth's formation. In such a case, the Earth should have captured the Moon. As is admitted by Professor Urey himself, such a capture is a very improbable event. In addition, an assumption that the “lunar” dimensions were representative of protoplanetary bodies in the entire solar system encounters great difficulties.

The Origin of the Moon and its Relationship to the Origin of the Solar System

1962 ◽  
Vol 14 ◽  
pp. 133-148 ◽  
Author(s):  
Harold C. Urey
Keyword(s):  
Solar System ◽  
The Moon ◽  
The Past ◽  
The Earth ◽  
Short Period ◽  
Origin Of The Moon

During the last 10 years, the writer has presented evidence indicating that the Moon was captured by the Earth and that the large collisions with its surface occurred within a surprisingly short period of time. These observations have been a continuous preoccupation during the past years and some explanation that seemed physically possible and reasonably probable has been sought.

Probable Structure and Nature of the Formations on the Reverse Side of the Moon According to Photometric Measurements of Lunar Photographs

1962 ◽  
Vol 14 ◽  
pp. 39-44
Author(s):  
A. V. Markov
Keyword(s):  
The Moon ◽  
Probable Structure ◽  
The Earth ◽  
Interplanetary Station ◽  
Photometric Measurements ◽  
Automatic Interplanetary Station

Notwithstanding the fact that a number of defects and distortions, introduced in transmission of the images of the latter to the Earth, mar the negatives of the reverse side of the Moon, indirectly obtained on 7 October 1959 by the automatic interplanetary station (AIS), it was possible to use the photometric measurements of the secondary (terrestrial) positives of the reverse side of the Moon in the experiment of the first comparison of the characteristics of the surfaces of the visible and invisible hemispheres of the Moon.

scholarly journals Interpreting Locked Photographic Data: The Case of Apollo 17 Photo GPN-2000-00113

Designs ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 5 (1) ◽  
pp. 8
Author(s):  
Pyrrhon Amathes ◽  
Paul Christodoulides
Keyword(s):  
Experimental Data ◽  
Computer Simulations ◽  
The Moon ◽  
Geometrical Analysis ◽  
Apparent Position ◽  
Apollo Program ◽  
The Earth ◽  
Novel Approach ◽  
The World ◽  
The Moment

Photography can be used for pleasure and art but can also be used in many disciplines of science, because it captures the details of the moment and can serve as a proving tool due to the information it preserves. During the period of the Apollo program (1969 to 1972), the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) successfully landed humans on the Moon and showed hundreds of photos to the world presenting the travel and landings. This paper uses computer simulations and geometry to examine the authenticity of one such photo, namely Apollo 17 photo GPN-2000-00113. In addition, a novel approach is employed by creating an experimental scene to illustrate details and provide measurements. The crucial factors on which the geometrical analysis relies are locked in the photograph and are: (a) the apparent position of the Earth relative to the illustrated flag and (b) the point to which the shadow of the astronaut taking the photo reaches, in relation to the flagpole. The analysis and experimental data show geometrical and time mismatches, proving that the photo is a composite.

scholarly journals INQUIRY INTO VERTICAL MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH‘S CRUST BASED ON SAMPLES FROM EASTERN LITHUANIA

2014 ◽  
Vol 40 (2) ◽  
pp. 58-67
Author(s):  
Ruta Puziene ◽  
Asta Anikeniene ◽  
Gitana Karsokiene
Keyword(s):  
Regression Models ◽  
Earth’S Crust ◽  
Movement Velocity ◽  
Correlation Matrices ◽  
Vertical Movements ◽  
Statistical Correlations ◽  
Horizontal Gradients ◽  
The Earth ◽  
Earth's Crust ◽  
Made In

In the research of vertical movements of the earth’s crust, examination of statistical correlations between the measured vertical movements of the earth’s crust and territorial geo-indexes is accomplished with the help of mathematical statistical analysis. Availability of the precise repeated levelling measuring data coupled with the preferred research methodology offer a chance to determine and predict recent vertical movements of the earth’s crust. For the inquiry into recent vertical movements of the earth’s crust, a Lithuanian class I vertical network levelling polygon was used. Drawing on measurements made in the polygon, vertical velocities of earth’s crust movements were calculated along the following levelling lines. For determining the relations shared by vertical movements of the earth’s crust and territorial geo-parameters, the following territory-defining parameters are accepted. Examination of the special qualities of relations shared by vertical movements of the earth’s crust and geo-parameters in the territory under research contributed to the computation of correlation matrices. Regression models are worked out taking into consideration only particular territory-defining geo-parameters, i.e. only those parameters which exhibit the following correlation coefficient value of the vertical earth’s crust movement velocity: r ≥ 0.50. A forecast of the velocities pertaining to vertical movements of the earth’s crust in the territory under examination was made with the application of regression models. Further in the process of this research, a map was compiled specifying the velocities of vertical movements of the earth’s crust in the territory. In the eastern part of this territory, the earth’s crust rises at a rate of up to 3 mm/year; while in the western part of it, the earth crust lowers at a rate of up to –1.5 mm/year. In order to pinpoint territories characterised by temperate and regular rising/lowering or intensive rising/lowering, a map of horizontal gradients of recent vertical earth crust movements in the territory enclosed by levelling polygon was compiled.

scholarly journals Isotopic evidence for the formation of the Moon in a canonical giant impact

2021 ◽  
Vol 12 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Sune G. Nielsen ◽  
David V. Bekaert ◽  
Maureen Auro
Keyword(s):  
Solar System ◽  
Isotope Fractionation ◽  
Main Stage ◽  
The Moon ◽  
Giant Impact ◽  
Bulk Silicate Earth ◽  
The Earth ◽  
The Standard Model ◽  
Isotopic Measurements ◽  
Origin Of The Moon

AbstractIsotopic measurements of lunar and terrestrial rocks have revealed that, unlike any other body in the solar system, the Moon is indistinguishable from the Earth for nearly every isotopic system. This observation, however, contradicts predictions by the standard model for the origin of the Moon, the canonical giant impact. Here we show that the vanadium isotopic composition of the Moon is offset from that of the bulk silicate Earth by 0.18 ± 0.04 parts per thousand towards the chondritic value. This offset most likely results from isotope fractionation on proto-Earth during the main stage of terrestrial core formation (pre-giant impact), followed by a canonical giant impact where ~80% of the Moon originates from the impactor of chondritic composition. Our data refute the possibility of post-giant impact equilibration between the Earth and Moon, and implies that the impactor and proto-Earth mainly accreted from a common isotopic reservoir in the inner solar system.

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