Skin temperature and cutaneous pain during warm water immersion

1965 ◽  
Vol 20 (5) ◽  
pp. 1014-1021 ◽  
Author(s):  
J. D. Hardy ◽  
J. A. J. Stolwijk ◽  
H. T. Hammel ◽  
D. Murgatroyd
Keyword(s):  
Skin Temperature ◽  
Human Subjects ◽  
Water Immersion ◽  
Bath Temperature ◽  
Temperature Sensitive ◽  
Thermal Gradients ◽  
Order Kinetic ◽  
Thermal Pain ◽  
Superficial Skin ◽  
Skin Temperatures

Measurements of skin temperature were made during the sudden immersion of the skin of human subjects in water baths at 36–41 C and related to the reports of pain elicited during the first few seconds of immersion. Within 0.5 sec, the skin temperature rose to bath temperature and remained at this level during the 10–15 sec of immersion, pain was reported at 37–41 C occurring 1–5 sec after the start of the immersion and adapting in 2–6 sec. Calculation of the subcutaneous temperature and thermal gradients indicate maximal thermal gradients in superficial skin layers during the first 0.1–0.2 sec of immersion (60 C/mm) decreasing rapidly during the first 5 sec to 6 C/mm. Analysis of the transient pain indicated that it could be considered as the more sensitive “phasic” response of the pain ending of which the “static” unadapting response occurs at skin temperatures of 43–46 C. Several alternative explanations including subcutaneous thermal gradients, vasomotor reactions, and thermochemical changes in the nerve membrane were considered as possible explanations. The last most likely possibility requires a second-order kinetic system of three capacities with highly temperature-sensitive reaction velocities to account for both the phasic and static components of the pain. thermal pain; transient pain; thermal gradients; protein destruction rates; mathematical model; adaptation of pain Submitted on September 2, 1964

The Effect of Pressure on Skin Temperature Measurements for a Disk Sensor

1979 ◽  
Vol 101 (4) ◽  
pp. 261-266 ◽  
Author(s):  
S. D. Mahanty ◽  
R. B. Roemer
Keyword(s):  
Skin Temperature ◽  
Human Subjects ◽  
Reactive Hyperemia ◽  
Circular Disk ◽  
Temperature Measurements ◽  
Whole Body ◽  
Local Pressure ◽  
Local Skin ◽  
Local Skin Temperature ◽  
Skin Temperatures

In order to determine the effect of application pressure on the accuracy of skin temperature measurements for area contact sensors, low values of pressure (2-20 mm Hg) were applied to the mid-thigh and to the lateral aspect of the trochanter of human subjects using a thin, circular disk with a thermistor mounted in the base. From measurements of the local skin temperatures, it was determined that a pressure of 2 mm Hg is adequate to measure the skin temperature accurately. Applying larger pressure results in higher local skin temperatures with the thighs showing larger temperature increases than the trochanters. The results of a finite difference analysis indicate that the increases in skin temperature at higher pressures can be accounted for by the physical phenomena associated with the penetration of the sensor into the tissue. After the release of pressure, the local skin temperature immediately decreased for all subjects indicating little or no reactive hyperemia was occurring. A method of compensating for the changes in local skin temperature which are due to whole body transient thermal effects was also developed. Use of this method allows the effects of the local pressure application to be separated from the transient environmental effects.

Adaptation of thermal pain in the skin

1962 ◽  
Vol 17 (4) ◽  
pp. 693-696 ◽  
Author(s):  
Leon C. Greene ◽  
James D. Hardy
Keyword(s):  
Thermal Radiation ◽  
Skin Temperature ◽  
Radiation Intensity ◽  
Pain Threshold ◽  
Human Subjects ◽  
Initial Period ◽  
Pain Thresholds ◽  
Thermal Pain ◽  
Cutaneous Pain ◽  
The Subject

Cutaneous pain thresholds were determined on blackened skin of foreheads and forearms of human subjects over areas of 16 cm2 by recording skin temperature during exposure to thermal radiation for periods up to 50 min. Intensity of stimulus was controlled by the subject so that threshold pain was maintained throughout the exposure. After the initial period of adjustment by the subject, radiation intensity was generally maintained constant although skin temperature for the pain threshold decreased from 44.9 C to 43.8 C. By using an intensity as low as 22 mcal/cm2/sec, threshold pain was evoked in 29 min at a skin temperature of 42.2 C. In both groups, once pain had been established it did not disappear. It is inferred from these observations that thermal pain does not adapt for near-threshold stimulation in the period between onset of pain at 30 sec and termination of stimulation. Submitted on December 26, 1961

scholarly journals Facultative Rest-Phase Hypothermia in Free-Ranging White-Throated Sparrows

The Condor ◽  
2004 ◽  
Vol 106 (2) ◽  
pp. 386-390 ◽  
Author(s):  
Andrew S. Dolby ◽  
John G. Temple ◽  
Laura E. Williams ◽  
Emily K. Dilger ◽  
Katrina M. Stechler ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Skin Temperature ◽  
Significant Negative Correlation ◽  
Published Data ◽  
Temperature Sensitive ◽  
Body Density ◽  
Zonotrichia Albicollis ◽  
Radio Transmitters ◽  
Para Determinar ◽  
Free Ranging ◽  
Skin Temperatures

Abstract Shallow facultative rest-phase hypothermia has been reported in a number of passerine families, but few published data exist about its use by free- ranging birds. We used temperature-sensitive radio- transmitters to determine whether White-throated Sparrows (Zonotrichia albicollis) employ nocturnal hypothermia during winter. We measured skin temperatures of 24 free-ranging sparrows between 13:00 and 14:00 and between 02:00 and 03:00 for each of three days and nights per subject. The average nightly skin- temperature reduction per individual was 3.4 ± 1.0°C (SD). Skin temperature reductions ranged from 0.2°C to 7.0°C among all individuals. There was a significant negative correlation between the magnitude of skin temperature decline and nighttime ambient temperature. Additionally, we found a negative trend between depth of hypothermia and a body density index. Fase de Reposo Hipotérmica Facultativa en Individuos de Zonotrichia albicollis que se Desplazan Libremente Resumen. La fase de reposo facultativa somera ha sido mencionada para un número de familias de paseriformes, pero existen pocos datos publicados sobre su uso por parte de aves que se desplazan libremente. Usamos radio transmisores sensibles a la temperatura para determinar si Zonotrichia albicollis emplea hipotermia nocturna durante el invierno. Medimos la temperatura de la piel de 24 individuos que se desplazan libremente entre las 13:00 y 14:00 y entre las 02:00 y 03:00 durante tres días y tres noches por individuo. La reducción nocturna promedio de la temperatura de la piel por individuo fue 3.4 ± 1.0°C (DE). Las reducciones de la temperatura de la piel variaron entre 0.2°C y 7.0°C considerando todos los individuos. Hubo una correlación negativa significativa entre la disminución de la magnitud de la temperatura de la piel y la temperatura ambiental nocturna. Adicionalmente, encontramos una tendencia negativa entre la profundidad de la hipotermia y el índice de densidad corporal.

The relationship of deep and surface skin temperatures to the ventilatory responses elicited during cold water immersion

1978 ◽  
Vol 56 (6) ◽  
pp. 999-1004 ◽  
Author(s):  
Sheilagh Martin ◽  
K. E. Cooper
Keyword(s):  
Skin Temperature ◽  
Cold Water ◽  
Ventilatory Response ◽  
Water Immersion ◽  
Cold Water Immersion ◽  
Rate Of Change ◽  
Ventilatory Responses ◽  
End Tidal ◽  
Relationship Of ◽  
Skin Temperatures

Subjects were immersed for 10 min in water at 14.5 °C, after exposure either to ambient temperature or sauna heating. During the immersions, total ventilation, end-tidal [Formula: see text], the mean of three surface skin temperatures, and deep skin temperatures were measured. There was a statistically significant correlation between the rate of change of deep skin temperature and the initial ventilatory responses evoked during both cold water immersions. After the sauna heating and cold water exposure, the temperature gradient through the skin appeared to be related to the ventilatory response. There was no significant correlation between the rate of change of mean surface skin temperature and the ventilatory response. The results suggest that the primary drive to increased ventilation during cold water immersion is the rate of change of deep skin temperature.

THE ENERGETICS OF HARBOR SEALS IN AIR AND IN WATER WITH SPECIAL CONSIDERATION OF SEASONAL CHANGES

1959 ◽  
Vol 37 (4) ◽  
pp. 447-457 ◽  
Author(s):  
J. S. Hart ◽  
L. Irving ◽  
B. Mackenzie
Keyword(s):  
Critical Temperature ◽  
Metabolic Rate ◽  
Skin Temperature ◽  
Seasonal Changes ◽  
The Body ◽  
Harbor Seals ◽  
Thermal Gradients ◽  
Critical Temperatures ◽  
C Metabolism ◽  
Skin Temperatures

The energetics of six harbor seals in air at temperatures from 25 °C to −20 °C and in water from 25 °C to 0 °C was studied in animals acclimatized to summer conditions at Woods Hole, Mass. Over the above temperature range, the temperature of skin of the back cooled from about 35° to 1° with lowering temperature of the medium. Temperatures of the flippers were less dependent upon the surroundings than those of the body skin. The dependence of metabolism upon temperature was operative below 2 °C in air and below 20 °C in water (the critical temperatures), but the body skin temperature at these critical temperatures was the same, viz. 21 °C. Metabolism in air and in water was the same over the range of comparable skin temperatures. Body insulation was equal in air and in water at the respective critical temperatures. The insulation index of the air was approximately 20 times that of the water. Heat conductivity of living blubber to water averaged 2.5 cal/cm2/hr/°C, which exceeded that reported for dead blubber by about 50%.When compared with seals tested at St. Andrews during December, summer seals had a higher critical temperature, a lower body insulation index at the critical temperature, and a warmer body skin temperature for the same metabolic rate. No seasonal changes were found in thermoneutral metabolic rate, and no discernible changes in skin temperatures or in thermal gradients in the blubber.

Thermoregulatory responses during competitive marathon running

1977 ◽  
Vol 42 (6) ◽  
pp. 909-914 ◽  
Author(s):  
M. B. Maron ◽  
J. A. Wagner ◽  
S. M. Horvath
Keyword(s):  
Skin Temperature ◽  
Marathon Running ◽  
Heat Illness ◽  
Mean Skin Temperature ◽  
Total Water ◽  
Water Losses ◽  
Thermoregulatory Responses ◽  
Marked Disparity ◽  
Skin Temperatures ◽  
Cool Conditions

To assess thermoregulatory responses occuring under actual marathon racing conditions, rectal (Tre) and five skin temperatures were measured in two runners approximately every 9 min of a competitive marathon run under cool conditions. Race times and total water losses were: runner 1 = 162.7 min, 3.02 kg; runner 2 = 164.6 min, 2.43 kg. Mean skin temperature was similar throughout the race in the two runners, although they exhibited a marked disparity in temperature at individual skin sites. Tre plateaued after 35--45 min (runner 1 = 40.0--40.1, runner 2 = 38.9--39.2 degrees C). While runner 2 maintained a relatively constant level for the remainder of the race, runner 1 exhibited a secondary increase in Tre. Between 113 and 119 min there was a precipitous rise in Tre from 40.9 to 41.9 degrees C. Partitional calorimetric calculations suggested that a decrease in sweating was responsible for this increment. However, runner 1's ability to maintain his high Tre and running pace for the remaining 44 min of the race and exhibit no signs of heat illness indicated thermoregulation was intact.

Comparative Efficacy of Physiological Responses and Skin Temperatures in Indigenous and Crossbred Cattle Supplemented with Chlorophytum borivilianum in Summer Season

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Pooja Devi ◽  
Mahendra Singh ◽  
Yallappa M. Somagond ◽  
A.K. Roy
Keyword(s):  
Heat Stress ◽  
Skin Temperature ◽  
Physiological Responses ◽  
High Dose ◽  
Crossbred Cattle ◽  
Comparative Efficacy ◽  
Production Potential ◽  
Chlorophytum Borivilianum ◽  
Humidity Index ◽  
Skin Temperatures

Background: Heat stress causes oxidative stress and declines milk production potential of cows. The physiological responses and skin temperature of heat stressed animals are good indices for deterring the heat stress. The efficacy of medicinal herb Chlorophytum borivilianum (CB) was tested in lowering the rise in values of physiological responses and skin temperature in crossbred vis a vis Indigenous cows. Methods: Eighteen Tharparkar (TP) and Crossbred KF cows in mid-lactation were given; No supplement (control), a low (T1, n=6) and a high dose (T2, n=6) of CB @ 40 and 80 mg/kg BW/day, respectively for 90 days during hot-humid season. Respiration rate (RR), pulse rate (PR), rectal temperature (RT) and skin temperature (ST) was recorded at the site of forehead, neck, rear body, and udder surface in the morning and afternoon at weekly intervals. Temperature-humidity index (THI) was calculated to assess the degree of thermal stress in animals. Result: Physiological responses and skin temperatures were higher (p less than 0.01) in the afternoon than morning intervals in TP and KF cows. CB feeding significantly lowered physiological responses and ST (p less than 0.01) in high dose as compared to low dose. It was concluded that CB feeding @ 80 mg/kg BW/day effectively alleviates the heat stress. Indigenous cows were found more heat tolerant in comparison to crossbred cows.

Quantifying Occupational Stress in Intensive Care Unit Nurses: An Applied Naturalistic Study of Correlations Among Stress, Heart Rate, Electrodermal Activity, and Skin Temperature

2021 ◽  
pp. 001872082110408
Author(s):  
Nima Ahmadi ◽  
Farzan Sasangohar ◽  
Tariq Nisar ◽  
Valerie Danesh ◽  
Ethan Larsen ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Intensive Care Unit ◽  
Heart Rate ◽  
Intensive Care ◽  
Skin Temperature ◽  
Electrodermal Activity ◽  
Laboratory Research ◽  
Prior Literature ◽  
High Level ◽  
Intensive Care Unit Nurses ◽  
Skin Temperatures

Objective To identify physiological correlates to stress in intensive care unit nurses. Background Most research on stress correlates are done in laboratory environments; naturalistic investigation of stress remains a general gap. Method Electrodermal activity, heart rate, and skin temperatures were recorded continuously for 12-hr nursing shifts (23 participants) using a wrist-worn wearable technology (Empatica E4). Results Positive correlations included stress and heart rate (ρ = .35, p < .001), stress and skin temperature (ρ = .49, p < .05), and heart rate and skin temperatures (ρ = .54, p = .0008). Discussion The presence and direction of some correlations found in this study differ from those anticipated from prior literature, illustrating the importance of complementing laboratory research with naturalistic studies. Further work is warranted to recognize nursing activities associated with a high level of stress and the underlying reasons associated with changes in physiological responses. Application Heart rate and skin temperature may be used for real-time detection of stress, but more work is needed to validate such surrogate measures.

Respiratory responses to noxious and nonnoxious heating of skin in cats

1984 ◽  
Vol 57 (6) ◽  
pp. 1738-1741 ◽  
Author(s):  
T. G. Waldrop ◽  
D. E. Millhorn ◽  
F. L. Eldridge ◽  
L. E. Klingler
Keyword(s):  
Body Temperature ◽  
Skin Temperature ◽  
Core Body Temperature ◽  
Warm Receptors ◽  
End Tidal ◽  
Core Body ◽  
Decerebrate Cats ◽  
Skin Temperatures ◽  
Respiratory Responses ◽  
Stimulation Of

Respiratory responses to increased skin temperatures were recorded in anesthetized cerebrate and in unanesthetized decerebrate cats. All were vagotomized, glomectomized, and paralyzed. Core body temperature and end-tidal Pco2 were kept constant with servoncontrollers. Stimulation of cutaneous nociceptors by heating the skin to 46 degrees C caused respiration to increase in both cerebrate and decerebrate cats. An even larger facilitation of respiration occurred when the skin temperature was elevated to 51 degrees C. However, respiration did not increase in either group of cats when the skin was heated to 41 degrees C to activate cutaneous warm receptors. The phenomenon of sensitization of nociceptors was observed. Spinal transection prevented all the respiratory responses to cutaneous heating. We conclude that noxious, but not nonnoxious, increases in skin temperature cause increases in respiratory output.

Comparison of responses of warm and nociceptive C-fiber afferents in monkey with human judgments of thermal pain

1978 ◽  
Vol 41 (2) ◽  
pp. 509-528 ◽  
Author(s):  
R. H. LaMotte ◽  
J. N. Campbell
Keyword(s):  
Skin Temperature ◽  
Conduction Velocity ◽  
Mechanical Stimulation ◽  
Human Subjects ◽  
Radiant Heat ◽  
Cumulative Number ◽  
Painful Stimulation ◽  
C Fibers ◽  
Nociceptive Afferents ◽  
Stimulus Temperature

1. Radiant-heat stimuli of different intensities were delivered every 28 s to the thenar eminence of the hand of human subjects and to the receptive fields (RFs) of 58 "mechanothermal nociceptive" and 16 "warm" C-fibers, most of which innervated the glabrous skin of the monkey hand. A CO2 infrared laser under control via a radiometer provided a step increase in skin temperature to a level maintained within +/- 0.1 degrees C over a 7.5-mm-diameter spot. 2. Human subjects categorized the magnitude of warmth and pain sensations evoked by stimuli that ranged in temperature from 40 to 50 degrees C. The scale of subjective thermal intensity constructed from these category estimates showed a monotonically increasing relation between stimulus temperature and the magnitude of warmth and pain sensations. 3. The mechanothermal fibers had a mean RF size of 18.9 +/- 3.2 mm2 (SE), a mean conduction velocity of 0.8 +/- 0.1 m/s, mean thresholds of 43.6 +/- 0.6 degrees C for radiant heat and 5.95 +/- 0.59 bars for mechanical stimulation, and no spontaneous activity. In contrast, warm fibers had punctate RFs, a mean conduction velocity of 1.1 +/- 0.1 m/s, heat thresholds of less than 1 degrees C above skin temperature, no response to mechanical stimulation, and a resting level of activity in warm skin that was suppressed by cooling. 4. The cumulative number of impulses evoked during each stimulation in the nociceptive afferents increased monotonically as a function of stimulus temperature over the range described by humans as increasingly painful (45-50 degrees C). Nociceptive fibers showed little or no response to stimulus temperatures less than 45 degrees C that elicited in humans sensations primarily of warmth but not pain. In contrast, the cumulative impulse count during stimulation of each warm fiber increased monotonically with stimulus temperature over the range of 39-43 degrees C. However, for stimuli of 41-49 degrees C the cumulative impulse count in warm fibers was nonmonotonic with stimulus temperature. Warm-fiber response to stimuli of 45 degrees C or greater usually consisted of a short burst of impulses followed by cessation of activity. 5. The subjective magnitude of warmth and pain sensations in humans and the cumulative impulse count evoked by each stimulus in warm and nociceptive afferents varied inversely with the number, delivery rate, and intensity of preceding stimulations. 6. The results of these experiments suggest the following: a) that activity in the mechanothermal nociceptive C-fibers signals the occurrence of pain evoked by radiant heat, and that the frequency of discharge in these fibers may encode the intensity of painful stimulation; b) that activity in warm fibers may encode the intensity of warmth at lower stimulus temperatures, but is unlikely to provide a peripheral mechanism for encoding the intensity of painful stimulation at higher stimulus temperatures.

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