Regulation of respiration in sleeping dogs

1976 ◽  
Vol 40 (5) ◽  
pp. 688-693 ◽  
Author(s):  
E. A. Phillipson ◽  
E. Murphy ◽  
L. F. Kozar
Keyword(s):  
Rem Sleep ◽  
Sleep Stage ◽  
Respiratory Control ◽  
Nrem Sleep ◽  
Variable Coefficients ◽  
Minute Volume ◽  
Regulation Of Respiration ◽  
Vagus Nerves ◽  
Sleep State ◽  
Coefficients Of Variation

We have examined the respiratory changes that occur during physiological sleep in three dogs with exteriorized cervical vagal loops. Sleep stage was determined by behavioral and EEG criteria. During non-REM (NREM) sleep breathing was slower (mean change, 23%),deeper (mean change, 18%), and less variable (coefficients of variation, 0.05–0.10) than during wakefulness (W); minute volume of ventilation (Ve) decreased (mean change, 14%) and alveolar CO2 pressure (PAco2) increased slightly (mean change, 1.3 mmHg). In addition, the rate of O2 consumption and ventilatory response to hypercapnia were decreased. In contrast, REM sleep was characterized by rapid, shallow, and considerably more irregular (coefficients of variation, 0.18–0.30) breathing; Ve increased markedly and PAco2 decreased (mean change, 5.2 mmHg). Blockade of both cervical vagus nerves produced comparable changes in each stage of sleep (W, NREM, REM): breathing became slower and deeper, but the differences between stages and the marked irregularity in REM sleep persisted. In contrast, the Hering-Breuer inflation reflex (HBIR) was strong in W and NREM sleep, but weak in REM sleep. The results indicate that changes in respiratory control and stability during sleep are not due to fluctuations in vagal influence despite the fact that one vagal reflex (HBIR) was sleep-state dependent.

Effect of REM sleep on retroglossal cross-sectional area and compliance in normal subjects

2001 ◽  
Vol 91 (1) ◽  
pp. 239-248 ◽  
Author(s):  
James A. Rowley ◽  
Carrie S. Sanders ◽  
Brian R. Zahn ◽  
M. Safwan Badr
Keyword(s):  
Eye Movement ◽  
Rem Sleep ◽  
Sleep Stage ◽  
Nrem Sleep ◽  
Normal Subjects ◽  
Cross Sectional Area ◽  
Sectional Area ◽  
Sleep State ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Pharyngeal Pressure

It has been proposed that the upper airway compliance should be highest during rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. Evidence suggests that the increased compliance is secondary to an increased retroglossal compliance. To test this hypothesis, we examined the effect of sleep stage on the relationship of retroglossal cross-sectional area (CSA; visualized with a fiber-optic scope) to pharyngeal pressure measured at the level of the oropharynx during eupneic breathing in subjects without significant sleep-disordered breathing. Breaths during REM sleep were divided into phasic (associated with eye movement, PREM) and tonic (not associated with eye movements, TREM). Retroglossal CSA decreased with non-REM (NREM) sleep and decreased further in PREM [wake 156.8 ± 48.6 mm2, NREM 104.6 ± 65.0 mm2( P < 0.05 wake vs. NREM), TREM 83.1 ± 46.4 mm2 ( P = not significant NREM vs. TREM), PREM 73.9 + 39.2 mm2 ( P < 0.05 TREM vs. PREM)]. Retroglossal compliance, defined as the slope of the regression CSA vs. pharyngeal pressure, was the same between all four conditions (wake −0.7 + 2.1 mm2/cmH2O, NREM 0.6 ± 3.0 mm2/cmH2O, TREM −0.2 ± 3.3 mm2/cmH2O, PREM −0.6 ± 5.1 mm2/cmH2O, P = not significant). We conclude that the intrinsic properties of the airway wall determine retroglossal compliance independent of changes in the neuromuscular activity associated with changes in sleep state.

Development of CO2 sensitivity: effects of gestational age, postnatal age, and sleep state

1981 ◽  
Vol 50 (5) ◽  
pp. 956-961 ◽  
Author(s):  
R. D. Guthrie ◽  
T. A. Standaert ◽  
W. A. Hodson ◽  
D. E. Woodrum
Keyword(s):  
Eye Movement ◽  
Gestational Age ◽  
Rem Sleep ◽  
Nrem Sleep ◽  
Minute Volume ◽  
Full Term ◽  
Macaca Nemestrina ◽  
Sleep State ◽  
Co2 Sensitivity ◽  
Independent Effects

To determine the independent effects of sleep state, gestational age, and postnatal age on eucapnic ventilation and steady-state CO2 sensitivity, nine premature (146 +/- 3 days) and eight full-term (168 +/- 2 days) monkeys, Macaca nemestrina, from accurately timed conceptions were studied serially over the first 3 wk of life. Minute volume (VE)/kg,tidal volume (VT)/kg, and respiratory frequency were quantitated during rapid-eye-movement sleep (REM) and nonrapid-eye-movement sleep (NREM)in room air and when animals were breathing varied concentrations of cO2 in 21% O2. Eucapnic VE/kg and CO2 sensitivity [(deltaVE/kg)/delta PaCO2] increased progressively with advancing postnatal age during NREM sleep in grouped term and premature animals. CO2 sensitivity was not significantly different between REM and NREM sleep except in full-term animals at the highest postconceptual age studied (189 +/- 2 days) when [(delta VE/kg)/delta PaCO2] was lower in REM sleep than in NREM sleep (209 +/- 54 vs. 301 +/- 71 ml.min-1.kg-1.Torr-1; P less than 0.05, paired-t test). Gestational age had no measurable effect on eucapnic ventilation or CO2 sensitivity. These results support the hypothesis that REM sleep-induced depression of CO2 sensitivity develops in the neonatal monkey with advancing postconceptual age.

Ventilatory responses to CO2 and lung inflation in tonic versus phasic REM sleep

1979 ◽  
Vol 47 (6) ◽  
pp. 1304-1310 ◽  
Author(s):  
C. E. Sullivan ◽  
E. Murphy ◽  
L. F. Kozar ◽  
E. A. Phillipson
Keyword(s):  
Eye Movements ◽  
Rem Sleep ◽  
Slow Wave Sleep ◽  
Minute Volume ◽  
Sleep State ◽  
Lung Inflation ◽  
Ventilatory Responses ◽  
Sustained Inflation ◽  
Per Se ◽  
Phasic Rem Sleep

Ventilatory responses to CO2 and to lung inflation were compared in four dogs during tonic and phasic segments of rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep. Phasic REM sleep (P-REM) was identified by the presence of bursts of rapid eye movements, visible muscle twitchings, and frequent phasic discharges in the nuchal electromyogram. These features were absent during tonic REM sleep (T-REM). During P-REM the response of minute volume of ventilation (VI) to progressive hypercapnia (0.58 +/- 0.19 (l/min)/Torr, mean +/- SE) was significantly less than in slow-wave sleep (SWS) (1.40 +/- 0.14; P less than 0.05). In contrast, during T-REM the response (1.48 +/- 0.19) was similar to that in SWS. Similarly, during P-REM the duration of apnea (5.9 +/- 1.5 s) elicited by sustained inflation of the lungs with 1.0 liter of air, was significantly shorter than in SWS (25.8 +/- 0.8); in contrast, during T-REM the duration of apnea (17.8 +/- 3.6) was similar to that in SWS. The results indicate that previously described decreases in VI responses to CO2 and apneic responses to lung inflation during P-REM, compared to SWS, are related to the phasic phenomena of REM sleep, rather than to the REM sleep state per se.

Sleep and maturation of eucapnic ventilation and CO2 sensitivity in the premature primate

1980 ◽  
Vol 48 (2) ◽  
pp. 347-354 ◽  
Author(s):  
R. D. Guthrie ◽  
T. A. Standaert ◽  
W. A. Hodson ◽  
D. E. Woodrum
Keyword(s):  
Body Weight ◽  
Steady State ◽  
Duty Cycle ◽  
Nrem Sleep ◽  
Minute Volume ◽  
Macaca Nemestrina ◽  
Sleep State ◽  
Postnatal Maturation ◽  
Awake State ◽  
Co2 Sensitivity

The effects of sleep state and postnatal maturation on steady-state CO2 sensitivity, "inspiratory drive" (VT/TI), and the inspiratory "duty cycle" (TI/Ttot) were examined in nine unanesthetized premature Macaca nemestrina in the first 3 wk of life. Minute volume (VE) in room air was less in NREM sleep than in the awake state but there were no differences in VE, VT/TI, or TI/Ttot between REM and NREM sleep. VE and VT/TI corrected for body weight increased in REM and NREM sleep with postnatal maturation whereas TI/Ttot did not vary. Concomitant with this increase in room air VE and VT/TI, an increase in CO2 sensitivity (delta V/delta Paco2) with postnatal maturation was documented in NREM sleep. CO2 sensitivity was similar between REM and NREM states at each postnatal age. The increase in VE following inhalation of 2-5% CO2 was mediated by an increase in VT/TI, whereas TI/Ttot remained constant. The differences in the effect of sleep on CO2 sensitivity between neonates and adults are discussed and possible mechanisms for the observed developmental increase in CO2 sensitivity are proposed.

Coronary and total peripheral resistance changes during sleep in a porcine model

1996 ◽  
Vol 270 (2) ◽  
pp. H723-H729 ◽  
Author(s):  
S. M. Zinkovska ◽  
E. K. Rodriguez ◽  
D. A. Kirby
Keyword(s):  
Heart Rate ◽  
Eye Movement ◽  
Rem Sleep ◽  
Total Peripheral Resistance ◽  
Sleep Stage ◽  
Peripheral Resistance ◽  
Nrem Sleep ◽  
Rapid Eye Movement ◽  
Autonomic Tone ◽  
Awake State

Changes in autonomic tone in the vasculature during sleep may have important implications for silent ischemia and sudden cardiac death. Few models exist in which both cardiac output and coronary blood flow are continuously measured during natural sleep and autonomic mechanisms are assessed. Catheters were chronically implanted in the aorta to measure mean arterial pressure (MAP), and flow probes were placed on the ascending aorta and the circumflex coronary artery of 18 pigs. Electrodes determined sleep stage as either non-rapid eye movement (NREM) or rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. The MAP was 73 +/- 3 mmHg in the quiet awake state, did not change in NREM, and decreased to 64 +/- 2 mmHg in REM sleep (P < 0.05). In NREM sleep, heart rate did not change from awake state values of 136 +/- 8 beats/min but increased by 5 beats/min in REM sleep (P < 0.05). Coronary vascular resistance decreased from awake state values of 2.7 +/- 0.2 to 2.2 +/- 0.2 mmHg.ml-1.min in REM (P < 0.05); total peripheral resistance decreased from awake values of 0.061 +/- 0.004 mmHg.ml-1.min to 0.050 +/- 0.003 in REM sleep (P < 0.05). Those changes appear to have been mediated primarily by reduction of alpha-adrenergic activity. Spectral analysis of heart rate suggests that power in the high-frequency range (a presumed indicator of parasympathetic tone) was lower in REM sleep than NREM sleep.

Circadian rhythms of sleep and wakefulness in mice: analysis using long-term automated recording of sleep

1985 ◽  
Vol 248 (3) ◽  
pp. R320-R330 ◽  
Author(s):  
G. S. Richardson ◽  
M. C. Moore-Ede ◽  
C. A. Czeisler ◽  
W. C. Dement
Keyword(s):  
Circadian Rhythms ◽  
Rem Sleep ◽  
Wheel Running ◽  
Nrem Sleep ◽  
Sleep State ◽  
Continuous Darkness ◽  
Running Activity ◽  
Wheel Running Activity ◽  
Significant Difference ◽  
Wake State

Circadian rhythms of wheel-running activity and polygraphically defined wakefulness, rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep and non-REM (NREM) sleep were continuously observed in ten mice (Mus musculus) under both alternating light-dark (LD 12:12) and continuous darkness (DD) conditions. Sleep-wake state was determined automatically using a computer-based method that allowed continuous recordings of from 60 to 280 days in duration. The sleep-wake state percentages (of the circadian cycle) thus obtained were in substantial agreement with other estimates for this or similar strains and showed no significant difference between LD 12:12 (wake 54.3%, NREM sleep 38.1%, REM sleep 7.6%) and DD (wake 53.1%, NREM sleep 39.9%, REM sleep 7.0%) conditions. All 10 mice exhibited clear circadian rhythms in each of the three states and wheel-running activity under both lighting conditions for the entire duration of observation. Probability functions, computed using stationary sections of data from all 10 mice, showed distinct waveforms for all three states and wheel running. These waveforms were remarkably similar under entrained and free-running conditions. This documentation of sustained circadian rhythmicity in sleep-wake state throughout observations of unprecedented length contradicts the currently common assertion that circadian control of sleep state is weaker than that of activity.

Neuronal basis of dreaming and mentation during slow-wave (non-REM) sleep

2000 ◽  
Vol 23 (6) ◽  
pp. 1009-1011 ◽  
Author(s):  
M. Steriade
Keyword(s):  
Rem Sleep ◽  
Cortical Neurons ◽  
Sleep Stage ◽  
Nrem Sleep ◽  
External World ◽  
Progressive Increase ◽  
Spontaneous Firing ◽  
Neocortical Neurons ◽  
Memory Traces ◽  
The Rich

Although the cerebral cortex is deprived of messages from the external world in REM sleep and because these messages are inhibited in the thalamus, cortical neurons display high rates of spontaneous firing and preserve their synaptic excitability to internally generated signals during this sleep stage. The rich activity of neocortical neurons during NREM sleep consists of prolonged spike-trains that impose rhythmic excitation onto connected cells in the network, eventually leading to a progressive increase in their synaptic responsiveness, as in plasticity processes. Thus, NREM sleep may be implicated in the consolidation of memory traces acquired during wakefulness.[Hobson et al.; Nielsen; Vertes & Eastman]

Drug-induced changes in fetal breathing activity and sleep state

1983 ◽  
Vol 61 (4) ◽  
pp. 315-324 ◽  
Author(s):  
Arno H. Jansen ◽  
S. Ioffe ◽  
V. Chernick
Keyword(s):  
Rem Sleep ◽  
Femoral Vein ◽  
Nrem Sleep ◽  
Primary Response ◽  
Sleep State ◽  
Drug Induced ◽  
Fetal Breathing ◽  
Near Term ◽  
Induced Changes ◽  
Stimulation Of

Drugs reported to stimulate fetal breathing (FB) were injected into a femoral vein of near-term fetal iambs during rapid eye movement (REM) and non-REM (NREM) sleep. The primary response to NaCN, 0.25–0.5 mg, a dose which did not flatten the electrocorticogram, was a brief burst of gasping in any sleep state. When injected during REM sleep, NaCN caused the cessation of spontaneous FB and the onset of gasping. Stimulation of FB was observed infrequently. Caffeine (10 mg) and doxapram (3 mg) frequently caused an immediate change in sleep state or arousal. The incidence of FB increased concomitantly with a change to REM sleep or wakefulness (W), but FB still ceased with the onset of NREM sleep. When administered during an episode of spontaneous FB during REM sleep, both caffeine and doxapram caused stimulation of the frequency and depth of breathing. Pilocarpine (4 mg) caused arousal and gasping followed by prolonged vigorous breathing that was dependent on intact carotid sinus nerves, Indomethacin (120 mg over several hours) did not affect sleep states but induced FB in both NREM and REM sleep. In summary, in the fetus the primary effect of NaCN is to suppress spontaneous FB and induce gasping and the effects of pilocarpine, caffeine, and doxapram are intimately related to sleep states or arousal. Indomethacin causes the conversion from episodic fetal to continuous postnatal-type breathing. These data indicate the importance of assessing fetal state of consciousness in interpreting the respiratory response to drugs.

scholarly journals NREM Sleep Stage Transitions Control Ultradian REM Sleep Rhythm

SLEEP ◽  
2011 ◽  
Vol 34 (10) ◽  
pp. 1423-1432 ◽  
Author(s):  
Akifumi Kishi ◽  
Hideaki Yasuda ◽  
Takahisa Matsumoto ◽  
Yasushi Inami ◽  
Jun Horiguchi ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Rem Sleep ◽  
Sleep Stage ◽  
Nrem Sleep

Covert REM sleep effects on REM mentation: Further methodological considerations and supporting evidence

2000 ◽  
Vol 23 (6) ◽  
pp. 1040-1057 ◽  
Author(s):  
Tore A. Nielsen
Keyword(s):  
Eye Movements ◽  
Future Development ◽  
Rem Sleep ◽  
Nrem Sleep ◽  
Explanatory Models ◽  
Supporting Evidence ◽  
Sleep State ◽  
Detailed Understanding ◽  
Methodological Considerations

Whereas many researchers see a heuristic potential in the covert REM sleep model for explaining NREM sleep mentation and associated phenomena, many others are unconvinced of its value. At present, there is much circumstantial support for the model, but validation is lacking on many points. Supportive findings from several additional studies are summarized with results from two new studies showing (1) NREM mentation is correlated with duration of prior REM sleep, and (2) REM sleep signs (eye movements, phasic EMG) occur frequently in NREM sleep. The covert REM sleep model represents one class of explanatory models that combines the two assumptions of mind-body isomorphism and a 1-gen mentation generator; its future development will depend largely upon a more detailed understanding of sleep state interactions and their contribution to mind-body isomorphisms.

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