l-Citrulline supplementation improves O2 uptake kinetics and high-intensity exercise performance in humans

2015 ◽  
Vol 119 (4) ◽  
pp. 385-395 ◽  
Author(s):  
Stephen J. Bailey ◽  
Jamie R. Blackwell ◽  
Terrence Lord ◽  
Anni Vanhatalo ◽  
Paul G. Winyard ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Blood Pressure ◽  
Exercise Performance ◽  
Performance Test ◽  
Moderate Intensity ◽  
Mean Response Time ◽  
Adult Men ◽  
Arterial Blood ◽  
Supplementation Period ◽  
Severe Intensity ◽  
Plasma Nitrite

The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of l-citrulline (Cit) and l-arginine (Arg) supplementation on nitric oxide (NO) biomarkers, pulmonary O2 uptake (V̇o2) kinetics, and exercise performance. In a randomized, placebo (Pla)-controlled, crossover study, 10 healthy adult men completed moderate- and severe-intensity cycling exercise on days 6 and 7 of a 7-day supplementation period with Pla, Arg (6 g/day), and Cit (6 g/day). Compared with Pla, plasma Arg concentration was increased by a similar magnitude with Arg and Cit supplementation, but plasma Cit concentration was only increased ( P < 0.001) with Cit supplementation. Plasma nitrite (NO2−) concentration was increased with Arg supplementation ( P < 0.05) and tended to increase with Cit supplementation ( P = 0.08) compared with Pla (83 ± 25, 106 ± 41, and 100 ± 38 nM with Pla, Arg, and Cit, respectively); however, mean arterial blood pressure was only lower ( P < 0.05) after Cit supplementation. The steady-state V̇o2 amplitude during moderate-intensity cycle exercise was not significantly different between supplements, but Cit lowered the V̇o2 mean response time (59 ± 8 and 53 ± 5 s with Pla and Cit, respectively, P < 0.05) during severe-intensity exercise, improved tolerance to severe-intensity exercise (589 ± 101 and 661 ± 107 s with Pla and Cit, respectively), and increased the total amount of work completed in the exercise performance test (123 ± 18 and 125 ± 19 kJ with Pla and Cit, respectively, P < 0.05). These variables were not altered by Arg supplementation ( P > 0.05). In conclusion, these results suggest that short-term Cit, but not Arg, supplementation can improve blood pressure, V̇o2 kinetics, and exercise performance in healthy adults.

Effects of interval and continuous training on O2 uptake kinetics during severe-intensity exercise initiated from an elevated metabolic baseline

2014 ◽  
Vol 116 (8) ◽  
pp. 1068-1077 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mariasole Da Boit ◽  
Stephen J. Bailey ◽  
Steven Callow ◽  
Fred J. DiMenna ◽  
Andrew M. Jones
Keyword(s):  
Exercise Performance ◽  
Performance Test ◽  
Moderate Intensity ◽  
Sprint Training ◽  
Continuous Training ◽  
Exercise Tests ◽  
Repeated Sprint ◽  
Severe Intensity ◽  
O2 Uptake Kinetics ◽  
Before And After

The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that V̇o2 kinetics would be speeded to a greater extent following repeated sprint training (RST), compared with continuous endurance training (ET), in the transition from moderate- to severe-intensity exercise. Twenty-three recreationally active subjects were randomly assigned to complete six sessions of ET (60–110 min of moderate-intensity cycling) or RST (four to seven 30-s all-out Wingate tests) over a 2-wk period. Subjects completed three identical work-to-work cycling exercise tests before and after the intervention period, consisting of baseline cycling at 20 W followed by sequential step increments to moderate- and severe-intensity work rates. The severe-intensity bout was continued to exhaustion on one occasion and was followed by a 60-s all-out sprint on another occasion. Phase II pulmonary V̇o2 kinetics were speeded by a similar magnitude in both the lower (ET pre, 28 ± 4; ET post, 22 ± 4 s; RST pre, 25 ± 8; RST post, 20 ± 7 s) and upper (ET pre, 50 ± 10; ET post, 39 ± 11 s; RST pre, 54 ± 7; RST post, 40 ± 11 s) steps of the work-to-work test following ET and RST ( P < 0.05). The tolerable duration of exercise and the total amount of sprint work completed in the exercise performance test were also similarly enhanced by ET and RST ( P < 0.05). Therefore, ET and RST provoked comparable improvements in V̇o2 kinetics and exercise performance in the transition from an elevated baseline work rate, with RST being a more time-efficient approach to elicit these adaptations.

scholarly journals Exercise-mediated vasodilation in human obesity and metabolic syndrome: effect of acute ascorbic acid infusion

2014 ◽  
Vol 307 (6) ◽  
pp. H840-H847 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jacqueline K. Limberg ◽  
J. Mikhail Kellawan ◽  
John W. Harrell ◽  
Rebecca E. Johansson ◽  
Marlowe W. Eldridge ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Blood Pressure ◽  
Metabolic Syndrome ◽  
Ascorbic Acid ◽  
Steady State ◽  
Time Course ◽  
Blood Pressure Monitoring ◽  
Moderate Intensity ◽  
Human Obesity ◽  
Mean Response Time ◽  
Arterial Blood

We tested the hypothesis that infusion of ascorbic acid (AA), a potent antioxidant, would alter vasodilator responses to exercise in human obesity and metabolic syndrome (MetSyn). Forearm blood flow (FBF, Doppler ultrasound) was measured in lean, obese, and MetSyn adults ( n = 39, 32 ± 2 yr). A brachial artery catheter was inserted for blood pressure monitoring and local infusion of AA. FBF was measured during dynamic handgrip exercise (15% maximal effort) with and without AA infusion. To account for group differences in blood pressure and forearm size, and to assess vasodilation, forearm vascular conductance (FVC = FBF/mean arterial blood pressure/lean forearm mass) was calculated. We examined the time to achieve steady-state FVC (mean response time, MRT) and the rise in FVC from rest to steady-state exercise (Δ, exercise − rest) before and during acute AA infusion. The MRT ( P = 0.26) and steady-state vasodilator responses to exercise (ΔFVC, P = 0.31) were not different between groups. Intra-arterial infusion of AA resulted in a significant increase in plasma total antioxidant capacity (174 ± 37%). AA infusion did not alter MRT or steady-state FVC in any group ( P = 0.90 and P = 0.85, respectively). Interestingly, higher levels of C-reactive protein predicted longer MRT ( r = 0.52, P < 0.01) and a greater reduction in MRT with AA infusion ( r = −0.43, P = 0.02). We concluded that AA infusion during moderate-intensity, rhythmic forearm exercise does not alter the time course or magnitude of exercise-mediated vasodilation in groups of young lean, obese, or MetSyn adults. However, systemic inflammation may limit the MRT to exercise, which can be improved with AA.

Acute and chronic effects of dietary nitrate supplementation on blood pressure and the physiological responses to moderate-intensity and incremental exercise

2010 ◽  
Vol 299 (4) ◽  
pp. R1121-R1131 ◽  
Author(s):  
Anni Vanhatalo ◽  
Stephen J. Bailey ◽  
Jamie R. Blackwell ◽  
Fred J. DiMenna ◽  
Toby G. Pavey ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Blood Pressure ◽  
Physiological Responses ◽  
Submaximal Exercise ◽  
Moderate Intensity ◽  
Moderate Intensity Exercise ◽  
Dietary Nitrate ◽  
Ramp Test ◽  
Supplementation Period ◽  
Improve Exercise Tolerance ◽  
Plasma Nitrite

Dietary nitrate (NO3−) supplementation with beetroot juice (BR) over 4–6 days has been shown to reduce the O2cost of submaximal exercise and to improve exercise tolerance. However, it is not known whether shorter (or longer) periods of supplementation have similar (or greater) effects. We therefore investigated the effects of acute and chronic NO3−supplementation on resting blood pressure (BP) and the physiological responses to moderate-intensity exercise and ramp incremental cycle exercise in eight healthy subjects. Following baseline tests, the subjects were assigned in a balanced crossover design to receive BR (0.5 l/day; 5.2 mmol of NO3−/day) and placebo (PL; 0.5 l/day low-calorie juice cordial) treatments. The exercise protocol (two moderate-intensity step tests followed by a ramp test) was repeated 2.5 h following first ingestion (0.5 liter) and after 5 and 15 days of BR and PL. Plasma nitrite concentration (baseline: 454 ± 81 nM) was significantly elevated (+39% at 2.5 h postingestion; +25% at 5 days; +46% at 15 days; P < 0.05) and systolic and diastolic BP (baseline: 127 ± 6 and 72 ± 5 mmHg, respectively) were reduced by ∼4% throughout the BR supplementation period ( P < 0.05). Compared with PL, the steady-state V̇o2during moderate exercise was reduced by ∼4% after 2.5 h and remained similarly reduced after 5 and 15 days of BR ( P < 0.05). The ramp test peak power and the work rate at the gas exchange threshold (baseline: 322 ± 67 W and 89 ± 15 W, respectively) were elevated after 15 days of BR (331 ± 68 W and 105 ± 28 W; P < 0.05) but not PL (323 ± 68 W and 84 ± 18 W). These results indicate that dietary NO3−supplementation acutely reduces BP and the O2cost of submaximal exercise and that these effects are maintained for at least 15 days if supplementation is continued.

ACE gene and physical activity, blood pressure, and hypertension: a population study in Finland

2002 ◽  
Vol 92 (6) ◽  
pp. 2508-2512 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ricardo M. Fuentes ◽  
Markus Perola ◽  
Aulikki Nissinen ◽  
Jaakko Tuomilehto
Keyword(s):  
Physical Activity ◽  
Blood Pressure ◽  
Leisure Time Physical Activity ◽  
Population Based ◽  
Moderate Intensity ◽  
P Value ◽  
Arterial Blood ◽  
Main Effect ◽  
History Of ◽  
Middle Aged Adults

The study evaluated the association of the insertion/deletion polymorphism of the angiotensin-converting enzyme gene (ACE I/D) with self-reported moderate-intensity leisure time physical activity (MILTPA), arterial blood pressure (BP) and history of hypertension (HT). A representative population-based sample of 721 middle-aged adults (358 women) from two areas of Finland was genotyped for the ACE I/D. After exclusion criteria were applied, 455 subjects (288 women) were selected for the analysis. The distribution of the ACE I/D genotypes did not differ significantly among frequent vs. nonfrequent MILTPA groups (χ2 = 2.556; df = 2; P value = 0.279). The main predictors of BP were male gender, age, body mass index, and arterial pulse. Additionally, tobacco smoking and alcohol consumption also had a significant main effect on diastolic BP. HT was significantly more frequent in subjects with obesity, family history of cardiovascular disease, or lower educational level. As for BP, neither ACE I/D nor MILTPA was associated with HT. The study confirmed recent reports from population-based studies of no association between ACE I/D and physical fitness. The study also confirmed a lack of association between ACE I/D and BP or HT.

Is beetroot juice more effective than sodium nitrate? The effects of equimolar nitrate dosages of nitrate-rich beetroot juice and sodium nitrate on oxygen consumption during exercise

2016 ◽  
Vol 41 (4) ◽  
pp. 421-429 ◽  
Author(s):  
Joelle Leonie Flueck ◽  
Anna Bogdanova ◽  
Samuel Mettler ◽  
Claudio Perret
Keyword(s):  
Oxygen Consumption ◽  
Sodium Nitrate ◽  
Peak Oxygen Consumption ◽  
Moderate Intensity ◽  
Plain Water ◽  
Beetroot Juice ◽  
Severe Intensity ◽  
Plasma Nitrate ◽  
Plasma Nitrite ◽  
Nitrate And Nitrite

Dietary nitrate has been reported to lower oxygen consumption in moderate- and severe-intensity exercise. To date, it is unproven that sodium nitrate (NaNO3−; NIT) and nitrate-rich beetroot juice (BR) have the same effects on oxygen consumption, blood pressure, and plasma nitrate and nitrite concentrations or not. The aim of this study was to compare the effects of different dosages of NIT and BR on oxygen consumption in male athletes. Twelve healthy, well-trained men (median [minimum; maximum]; peak oxygen consumption: 59.4 mL·min−1·kg−1 [40.5; 67.0]) performed 7 trials on different days, ingesting different nitrate dosages and placebo (PLC). Dosages were 3, 6, and 12 mmol nitrate as concentrated BR or NIT dissolved in plain water. Plasma nitrate and nitrite concentrations were measured before, 3 h after ingestion, and postexercise. Participants cycled for 5 min at moderate intensity and further 8 min at severe intensity. End-exercise oxygen consumption at moderate intensity was not significantly different between the 7 trials (p = 0.08). At severe-intensity exercise, end-exercise oxygen consumption was ∼4% lower in the 6-mmol BR trial compared with the 6-mmol NIT (p = 0.003) trial as well as compared with PLC (p = 0.010). Plasma nitrite and nitrate concentrations were significantly increased after the ingestion of BR and NIT with the highest concentrations in the 12-mmol trials. Plasma nitrite concentration between NIT and BR did not significantly differ in the 6-mmol (p = 0.27) and in the 12-mmol (p = 0.75) trials. In conclusion, BR might reduce oxygen consumption to a greater extent compared with NIT.

scholarly journals Association of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) gene polymorphisms and physical fitness levels with plasma nitrite concentrations and arterial blood pressure values in older adults

PLoS ONE ◽  
2018 ◽  
Vol 13 (10) ◽  
pp. e0206254
Author(s):  
Roberta Fernanda da Silva ◽  
Átila Alexandre Trapé ◽  
Thaís Amanda Reia ◽  
Riccardo Lacchini ◽  
Gustavo Henrique Oliveira-Paula ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Nitric Oxide ◽  
Blood Pressure ◽  
Older Adults ◽  
Endothelial Nitric Oxide Synthase ◽  
Gene Polymorphisms ◽  
Enos Gene ◽  
Arterial Blood ◽  
Plasma Nitrite ◽  
Oxide Synthase ◽  
Endothelial Nitric Oxide

Dietary nitrate supplementation: effects on plasma nitrite and pulmonary O2 uptake dynamics during exercise in hypoxia and normoxia

2014 ◽  
Vol 307 (7) ◽  
pp. R920-R930 ◽  
Author(s):  
James Kelly ◽  
Anni Vanhatalo ◽  
Stephen J. Bailey ◽  
Lee J. Wylie ◽  
Christopher Tucker ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Exercise Tolerance ◽  
Moderate Intensity ◽  
Beetroot Juice ◽  
Moderate Intensity Exercise ◽  
Exercise Tests ◽  
Double Blind ◽  
Dietary Nitrate ◽  
Severe Intensity ◽  
Rate Of Decline ◽  
Plasma Nitrite

We investigated the effects of dietary nitrate (NO3−) supplementation on the concentration of plasma nitrite ([NO2−]), oxygen uptake (V̇o2) kinetics, and exercise tolerance in normoxia (N) and hypoxia (H). In a double-blind, crossover study, 12 healthy subjects completed cycle exercise tests, twice in N (20.9% O2) and twice in H (13.1% O2). Subjects ingested either 140 ml/day of NO3−-rich beetroot juice (8.4 mmol NO3; BR) or NO3−-depleted beetroot juice (PL) for 3 days prior to moderate-intensity and severe-intensity exercise tests in H and N. Preexercise plasma [NO2−] was significantly elevated in H-BR and N-BR compared with H-PL ( P < 0.01) and N-PL ( P < 0.01). The rate of decline in plasma [NO2−] was greater during severe-intensity exercise in H-BR [−30 ± 22 nM/min, 95% confidence interval (CI); −44, −16] compared with H-PL (−7 ± 10 nM/min, 95% CI; −13, −1; P < 0.01) and in N-BR (−26 ± 19 nM/min, 95% CI; −38, −14) compared with N-PL (−1 ± 6 nM/min, 95% CI; −5, 2; P < 0.01). During moderate-intensity exercise, steady-state pulmonary V̇o2 was lower in H-BR (1.91 ± 0.28 l/min, 95% CI; 1.77, 2.13) compared with H-PL (2.05 ± 0.25 l/min, 95% CI; 1.93, 2.26; P = 0.02), and V̇o2 kinetics was faster in H-BR (τ: 24 ± 13 s, 95% CI; 15, 32) compared with H-PL (31 ± 11 s, 95% CI; 23, 38; P = 0.04). NO3− supplementation had no significant effect on V̇o2 kinetics during severe-intensity exercise in hypoxia, or during moderate-intensity or severe-intensity exercise in normoxia. Tolerance to severe-intensity exercise was improved by NO3− in hypoxia (H-PL: 197 ± 28; 95% CI; 173, 220 vs. H-BR: 214 ± 43 s, 95% CI; 177, 249; P = 0.04) but not normoxia. The metabolism of NO2− during exercise is altered by NO3− supplementation, exercise, and to a lesser extent, hypoxia. In hypoxia, NO3− supplementation enhances V̇o2 kinetics during moderate-intensity exercise and improves severe-intensity exercise tolerance. These findings may have important implications for individuals exercising at altitude.

scholarly journals Influence of dietary nitrate supplementation on physiological and muscle metabolic adaptations to sprint interval training

2017 ◽  
Vol 122 (3) ◽  
pp. 642-652 ◽  
Author(s):  
Christopher Thompson ◽  
Lee J. Wylie ◽  
Jamie R. Blackwell ◽  
Jonathan Fulford ◽  
Matthew I. Black ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Exercise Performance ◽  
Interval Training ◽  
Moderate Intensity ◽  
Sprint Interval Training ◽  
Beetroot Juice ◽  
Dietary Nitrate ◽  
Metabolic Adaptations ◽  
Physiological Adaptations ◽  
Severe Intensity ◽  
Nitrate Supplementation

We hypothesized that 4 wk of dietary nitrate supplementation would enhance exercise performance and muscle metabolic adaptations to sprint interval training (SIT). Thirty-six recreationally active subjects, matched on key variables at baseline, completed a series of exercise tests before and following a 4-wk period in which they were allocated to one of the following groups: 1) SIT and [Formula: see text]-depleted beetroot juice as a placebo (SIT+PL); 2) SIT and [Formula: see text]-rich beetroot juice (~13 mmol [Formula: see text]/day; SIT+BR); or 3) no training and [Formula: see text]-rich beetroot juice (NT+BR). During moderate-intensity exercise, pulmonary oxygen uptake was reduced by 4% following 4 wk of SIT+BR and NT+BR ( P < 0.05) but not SIT+PL. The peak work rate attained during incremental exercise increased more in SIT+BR than in SIT+PL ( P < 0.05) or NT+BR ( P < 0.001). The reduction in muscle and blood [lactate] and the increase in muscle pH from preintervention to postintervention were greater at 3 min of severe-intensity exercise in SIT+BR compared with SIT+PL and NT+BR ( P < 0.05). However, the change in severe-intensity exercise performance was not different between SIT+BR and SIT+PL ( P > 0.05). The relative proportion of type IIx muscle fibers in the vastus lateralis muscle was reduced in SIT+BR only ( P < 0.05). These findings suggest that BR supplementation may enhance some aspects of the physiological adaptations to SIT. NEW & NOTEWORTHY We investigated the influence of nitrate-rich and nitrate-depleted beetroot juice on the muscle metabolic and physiological adaptations to 4 wk of sprint interval training. Compared with placebo, dietary nitrate supplementation reduced the O2 cost of submaximal exercise, resulted in greater improvement in incremental (but not severe-intensity) exercise performance, and augmented some muscle metabolic adaptations to training. Nitrate supplementation may facilitate some of the physiological responses to sprint interval training.

Dietary nitrate supplementation reduces the O2cost of walking and running: a placebo-controlled study

2011 ◽  
Vol 110 (3) ◽  
pp. 591-600 ◽  
Author(s):  
Katherine E. Lansley ◽  
Paul G. Winyard ◽  
Jonathan Fulford ◽  
Anni Vanhatalo ◽  
Stephen J. Bailey ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Blood Pressure ◽  
Physiological Responses ◽  
Dietary Supplementation ◽  
Moderate Intensity ◽  
Controlled Study ◽  
Time To Exhaustion ◽  
Exercise Tests ◽  
Positive Effects ◽  
Severe Intensity ◽  
Per Se

Dietary supplementation with beetroot juice (BR) has been shown to reduce resting blood pressure and the O2cost of submaximal exercise and to increase tolerance to high-intensity cycling. We tested the hypothesis that the physiological effects of BR were consequent to its high NO3−content per se, and not the presence of other potentially bioactive compounds. We investigated changes in blood pressure, mitochondrial oxidative capacity (Qmax), and physiological responses to walking and moderate- and severe-intensity running following dietary supplementation with BR and NO3−-depleted BR [placebo (PL)]. After control (nonsupplemented) tests, nine healthy, physically active male subjects were assigned in a randomized, double-blind, crossover design to receive BR (0.5 l/day, containing ∼6.2 mmol of NO3−) and PL (0.5 l/day, containing ∼0.003 mmol of NO3−) for 6 days. Subjects completed treadmill exercise tests on days 4 and 5 and knee-extension exercise tests for estimation of Qmax(using31P-magnetic resonance spectroscopy) on day 6 of the supplementation periods. Relative to PL, BR elevated plasma NO2−concentration (183 ± 119 vs. 373 ± 211 nM, P < 0.05) and reduced systolic blood pressure (129 ± 9 vs. 124 ± 10 mmHg, P < 0.01). Qmaxwas not different between PL and BR (0.93 ± 0.05 and 1.05 ± 0.22 mM/s, respectively). The O2cost of walking (0.87 ± 0.12 and 0.70 ± 0.10 l/min in PL and BR, respectively, P < 0.01), moderate-intensity running (2.26 ± 0.27 and 2.10 ± 0.28 l/min in PL and BR, respectively, P < 0.01), and severe-intensity running (end-exercise O2uptake = 3.77 ± 0.57 and 3.50 ± 0.62 l/min in PL and BL, respectively, P < 0.01) was reduced by BR, and time to exhaustion during severe-intensity running was increased by 15% (7.6 ± 1.5 and 8.7 ± 1.8 min in PL and BR, respectively, P < 0.01). In contrast, relative to control, PL supplementation did not alter plasma NO2−concentration, blood pressure, or the physiological responses to exercise. These results indicate that the positive effects of 6 days of BR supplementation on the physiological responses to exercise can be ascribed to the high NO3−content per se.

Beetroot juice and exercise: pharmacodynamic and dose-response relationships

2013 ◽  
Vol 115 (3) ◽  
pp. 325-336 ◽  
Author(s):  
Lee J. Wylie ◽  
James Kelly ◽  
Stephen J. Bailey ◽  
Jamie R. Blackwell ◽  
Philip F. Skiba ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Dose Response ◽  
Cardiovascular Health ◽  
Physiological Responses ◽  
Moderate Intensity ◽  
Dependent Manner ◽  
Beetroot Juice ◽  
Moderate Intensity Exercise ◽  
Exercise Tests ◽  
Severe Intensity ◽  
Plasma Nitrite

Dietary supplementation with beetroot juice (BR), containing approximately 5–8 mmol inorganic nitrate (NO3−), increases plasma nitrite concentration ([NO2−]), reduces blood pressure, and may positively influence the physiological responses to exercise. However, the dose-response relationship between the volume of BR ingested and the physiological effects invoked has not been investigated. In a balanced crossover design, 10 healthy men ingested 70, 140, or 280 ml concentrated BR (containing 4.2, 8.4, and 16.8 mmol NO3−, respectively) or no supplement to establish the effects of BR on resting plasma [NO3−] and [NO2−] over 24 h. Subsequently, on six separate occasions, 10 subjects completed moderate-intensity and severe-intensity cycle exercise tests, 2.5 h postingestion of 70, 140, and 280 ml BR or NO3−-depleted BR as placebo (PL). Following acute BR ingestion, plasma [NO2−] increased in a dose-dependent manner, with the peak changes occurring at approximately 2–3 h. Compared with PL, 70 ml BR did not alter the physiological responses to exercise. However, 140 and 280 ml BR reduced the steady-state oxygen (O2) uptake during moderate-intensity exercise by 1.7% ( P = 0.06) and 3.0% ( P < 0.05), whereas time-to-task failure was extended by 14% and 12% (both P < 0.05), respectively, compared with PL. The results indicate that whereas plasma [NO2−] and the O2 cost of moderate-intensity exercise are altered dose dependently with NO3−-rich BR, there is no additional improvement in exercise tolerance after ingesting BR containing 16.8 compared with 8.4 mmol NO3−. These findings have important implications for the use of BR to enhance cardiovascular health and exercise performance in young adults.

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