scholarly journals A locomotor learning paradigm using distorted visual feedback elicits strategic learning

2018 ◽  
Vol 120 (4) ◽  
pp. 1923-1931 ◽  
Author(s):  
Margaret A. French ◽  
Susanne M. Morton ◽  
Charalambos C. Charalambous ◽  
Darcy S. Reisman
Keyword(s):  
Upper Extremity ◽  
Implicit Learning ◽  
Visual Feedback ◽  
Explicit Learning ◽  
Strategic Learning ◽  
Overground Walking ◽  
Visuomotor Rotation ◽  
Small Component ◽  
Walking Pattern ◽  
Do So

Distorted visual feedback (DVF) during locomotion has been suggested to result in the development of a new walking pattern in healthy individuals through implicit learning processes. Recent work in upper extremity visuomotor rotation paradigms suggest that these paradigms involve implicit and explicit learning. Additionally, in upper extremity visuomotor paradigms, the verbal cues provided appear to impact how a behavior is learned and when this learned behavior is used. Here, in two experiments in neurologically intact individuals, we tested how verbal instruction impacts learning a new locomotor pattern on a treadmill through DVF, the transfer of that pattern to overground walking, and what types of learning occur (i.e., implicit vs. explicit learning). In experiment 1, we found that the instructions provided impacted the amount learned through DVF, but not the size of the aftereffects or the amount of the pattern transferred to overground walking. Additionally, the aftereffects observed were significantly different from the baseline walking pattern, but smaller than the behavior changes observed during learning, which is uncharacteristic of implicit sensorimotor adaptation. Thus, experiment 2 aimed to determine the cause of these discrepancies. In this experiment, when VF was not provided, individuals continued using the learned walking pattern when instructed to do so and returned toward their baseline pattern when instructed to do so. Based on these results, we conclude that DVF during locomotion results in a large portion of explicit learning and a small portion of implicit learning. NEW & NOTEWORTHY The results of this study suggest that distorted visual feedback during locomotor learning involves the development of an explicit strategy with only a small component of implicit learning. This is important because previous studies using distorted visual feedback have suggested that locomotor learning relies primarily on implicit learning. This paradigm, therefore, provides a new way to examine a different form of learning in locomotion.

Sensorimotor knowledge from task-irrelevant feedback contributes to motor learning

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Wanying Jiang ◽  
Yajie Liu ◽  
Yuqing Bi ◽  
Kunlin Wei
Keyword(s):  
Motor Learning ◽  
Perceptual Learning ◽  
Implicit Learning ◽  
Motor Adaptation ◽  
Strategic Learning ◽  
Visuomotor Rotation ◽  
Saving Effect ◽  
Sensorimotor Knowledge ◽  
Sensory Processes ◽  
Task Irrelevant

Exposure to task-irrelevant feedback leads to perceptual learning, but its effect on motor learning has been understudied. Here we asked human participants to reach a visual target with a hand-controlled cursor while observing another cursor moving independently in a different direction. While the task-irrelevant feedback did not change the main task's performance, it elicited robust savings in subsequent adaptation to classical visuomotor rotation perturbation. We demonstrated that the saving effect resulted from a faster formation of strategic learning through a series of experiments, not from gains in the implicit learning process. Furthermore, the saving effect was robust against drastic changes in stimulus features (i.e., rotation size or direction) or task types (i.e., for motor adaptation and skill learning). However, the effect was absent when the task-irrelevant feedback did not carry the visuomotor relationship embedded in visuomotor rotation. Thus, though previous research on perceptual learning has related task-irrelevant feedback to changes in early sensory processes, our findings support its role in acquiring abstract sensorimotor knowledge during motor learning. Motor learning studies have traditionally focused on task-relevant feedback, but our study extends the scope of feedback processes and sheds new light on the dichotomy of explicit and implicit learning in motor adaptation as well as motor structure learning.

scholarly journals Effect of coordinate frame compatibility on the transfer of implicit and explicit learning across limbs

2016 ◽  
Vol 116 (3) ◽  
pp. 1239-1249 ◽  
Author(s):  
Eugene Poh ◽  
Timothy J. Carroll ◽  
Jordan A. Taylor
Keyword(s):  
Implicit Learning ◽  
Neural Representation ◽  
Coordinate Frame ◽  
Explicit Learning ◽  
Verbal Reports ◽  
Visuomotor Rotation ◽  
Left And Right ◽  
Task Conditions ◽  
Opposite Limb ◽  
Implicit And Explicit

Insights into the neural representation of motor learning can be obtained by investigating how learning transfers to novel task conditions. We recently demonstrated that visuomotor rotation learning transferred strongly between left and right limbs when the task was performed in a sagittal workspace, which afforded a consistent remapping for the two limbs in both extrinsic and joint-based coordinates. In contrast, transfer was absent when performed in horizontal workspace, where the extrinsically defined perturbation required conflicting joint-based remapping for the left and right limbs. Because visuomotor learning is thought to be supported by both implicit and explicit forms of learning, however, it is unclear to what extent these distinct forms of learning contribute to interlimb transfer. In this study, we assessed the degree to which interlimb transfer, following visuomotor rotation training, reflects explicit vs. implicit learning by obtaining verbal reports of participants' aiming direction before each movement. We also determined the extent to which these distinct components of learning are constrained by the compatibility of coordinate systems by comparing transfer between groups of participants who reached to targets arranged in the horizontal and sagittal planes. Both sagittal and horizontal conditions displayed complete transfer of explicit learning to the untrained limb. In contrast, transfer of implicit learning was incomplete, but the sagittal condition showed greater transfer than the horizontal condition. These findings suggest that explicit strategies developed with one limb can be fully implemented in the opposite limb, whereas implicit transfer depends on the degree to which new sensorimotor maps are spatially compatible for the two limbs.

scholarly journals Flexible explicit but rigid implicit learning in a visuomotor adaptation task

2015 ◽  
Vol 113 (10) ◽  
pp. 3836-3849 ◽  
Author(s):  
Krista M. Bond ◽  
Jordan A. Taylor
Keyword(s):  
Implicit Learning ◽  
Computational Models ◽  
Visuomotor Adaptation ◽  
Task Demands ◽  
Similar Degree ◽  
Explicit Learning ◽  
Prediction Errors ◽  
Visuomotor Rotation ◽  
Indirect Measures ◽  
Task Conditions

There is mounting evidence for the idea that performance in a visuomotor rotation task can be supported by both implicit and explicit forms of learning. The implicit component of learning has been well characterized in previous experiments and is thought to arise from the adaptation of an internal model driven by sensorimotor prediction errors. However, the role of explicit learning is less clear, and previous investigations aimed at characterizing the explicit component have relied on indirect measures such as dual-task manipulations, posttests, and descriptive computational models. To address this problem, we developed a new method for directly assaying explicit learning by having participants verbally report their intended aiming direction on each trial. While our previous research employing this method has demonstrated the possibility of measuring explicit learning over the course of training, it was only tested over a limited scope of manipulations common to visuomotor rotation tasks. In the present study, we sought to better characterize explicit and implicit learning over a wider range of task conditions. We tested how explicit and implicit learning change as a function of the specific visual landmarks used to probe explicit learning, the number of training targets, and the size of the rotation. We found that explicit learning was remarkably flexible, responding appropriately to task demands. In contrast, implicit learning was strikingly rigid, with each task condition producing a similar degree of implicit learning. These results suggest that explicit learning is a fundamental component of motor learning and has been overlooked or conflated in previous visuomotor tasks.

scholarly journals Investigating the feasibility and acceptability of real-time visual feedback in reducing compensatory motions during self-administered stroke rehabilitation exercises: A pilot study with chronic stroke survivors

2019 ◽  
Vol 6 ◽  
pp. 205566831983163 ◽  
Author(s):  
Shayne Lin ◽  
Jotvarinder Mann ◽  
Avril Mansfield ◽  
Rosalie H Wang ◽  
Jocelyn E Harris ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Pilot Study ◽  
Upper Extremity ◽  
Visual Feedback ◽  
Feedback System ◽  
Optimal Recovery ◽  
Chronic Stroke ◽  
Stroke Survivors ◽  
Perfect Agreement ◽  
Rehabilitation Programs ◽  
Shoulder Elevation

Introduction Homework-based rehabilitation programs can help stroke survivors restore upper extremity function. However, compensatory motions can develop without therapist supervision, leading to sub-optimal recovery. We developed a visual feedback system using a live video feed or an avatar reflecting users' movements so users are aware of compensations. This pilot study aimed to evaluate validity (how well the avatar characterizes different types of compensations) and acceptability of the system. Methods Ten participants with chronic stroke performed upper-extremity exercises under three feedback conditions: none, video, and avatar. Validity was evaluated by comparing agreement on compensations annotated using video and avatar images. A usability survey was administered to participants after the experiment to obtain information on acceptability. Results There was substantial agreement between video and avatar images for shoulder elevation and hip extension (Cohen's κ: 0.6–0.8) and almost perfect agreement for trunk rotation and flexion (κ: 0.80–1). Acceptability was low due to lack of corrective prompts and occasional noise with the avatar display. Most participants suggested that an automatic compensation detection feature with visual and auditory cuing would improve the system. Conclusion The avatar characterized four types of compensations well. Future work will involve increasing sensitivity for shoulder elevation and implementing a method to detect compensations.

scholarly journals Designing an Instrument to Measure Explicit and Implicit Learning Processes

2020 ◽  
Vol 2 (1) ◽  
pp. 92-102
Author(s):  
Anna Zólyomi
Keyword(s):  
Second Language Acquisition ◽  
Secondary School ◽  
Implicit Learning ◽  
Artificial Grammar ◽  
Explicit Learning ◽  
Significant Finding ◽  
Learning Mechanism ◽  
Grammar Learning ◽  
Efl Teachers ◽  
Research Endeavour

In this research paper, the researcher’s intention was to design an instrument that is able to measure learning under two different conditions: explicit and implicit learning. Exploring explicit and implicit learning is gaining more and more attention nowadays in the field of second language acquisition (SLA). The Quantitative method was used in this study to investigate which learning mechanism proves to be more efficient in the selected sample. The present study involved Hungarian technical school, secondary school, and university students from Budapest (N = 40) who participated in completing an Artificial Grammar Learning (AGL) task. The most important finding of the present research endeavour is that implicit learning has proven to be more effective than explicit learning in the case of the selected participants and this was a statistically significant finding. The pedagogical implication of this study is that the effectiveness of implicit learning should be reconsidered by EFL teachers in Hungary.

scholarly journals Neural signatures of reward and sensory error feedback processing in motor learning

2019 ◽  
Vol 121 (4) ◽  
pp. 1561-1574 ◽  
Author(s):  
Dimitrios J. Palidis ◽  
Joshua G. A. Cashaback ◽  
Paul L. Gribble
Keyword(s):  
Visual Feedback ◽  
Motor Adaptation ◽  
Learning Task ◽  
Reward Learning ◽  
P300 Amplitude ◽  
Error Feedback ◽  
Learning Mechanisms ◽  
Visuomotor Rotation ◽  
Feedback Processing ◽  
Motor Commands

At least two distinct processes have been identified by which motor commands are adapted according to movement-related feedback: reward-based learning and sensory error-based learning. In sensory error-based learning, mappings between sensory targets and motor commands are recalibrated according to sensory error feedback. In reward-based learning, motor commands are associated with subjective value, such that successful actions are reinforced. We designed two tasks to isolate reward- and sensory error-based motor adaptation, and we used electroencephalography in humans to identify and dissociate the neural correlates of reward and sensory error feedback processing. We designed a visuomotor rotation task to isolate sensory error-based learning that was induced by altered visual feedback of hand position. In a reward learning task, we isolated reward-based learning induced by binary reward feedback that was decoupled from the visual target. A fronto-central event-related potential called the feedback-related negativity (FRN) was elicited specifically by binary reward feedback but not sensory error feedback. A more posterior component called the P300 was evoked by feedback in both tasks. In the visuomotor rotation task, P300 amplitude was increased by sensory error induced by perturbed visual feedback and was correlated with learning rate. In the reward learning task, P300 amplitude was increased by reward relative to nonreward and by surprise regardless of feedback valence. We propose that during motor adaptation the FRN specifically reflects a reward-based learning signal whereas the P300 reflects feedback processing that is related to adaptation more generally. NEW & NOTEWORTHY We studied the event-related potentials evoked by feedback stimuli during motor adaptation tasks that isolate reward- and sensory error-based learning mechanisms. We found that the feedback-related negativity was specifically elicited by binary reward feedback, whereas the P300 was observed in both tasks. These results reveal neural processes associated with different learning mechanisms and elucidate which classes of errors, from a computational standpoint, elicit the feedback-related negativity and P300.

The Use of Reinforcement Procedures in Retraining Hand Movement of a CVA Hemiplegic

1985 ◽  
Vol 2 (1) ◽  
pp. 52-58 ◽  
Author(s):  
John F. Smith ◽  
Mary Ann Henriques ◽  
Barry S. Parsonson
Keyword(s):  
Upper Extremity ◽  
Visual Feedback ◽  
Cerebrovascular Accident ◽  
Hand Movement ◽  
Binary Feedback ◽  
Treatment Conditions ◽  
The Subject ◽  
Baseline Levels ◽  
Direct Feedback ◽  
Upper Extremity Movement

This study investigated the effectiveness of reinforcement procedures in retraining upper extremity movement impaired as a result of cerebrovascular accident. A simply constructed instrument permitted accurate measurement of motor responding and, under some treatment conditions, provided the subject with direct feedback of movement. Experimenter praise for movement which met a pre-selected standard or criterion, in combination with binary visual feedback of performance and a knowledge of progress condition, was shown to bring about continuing improvement in the hemiplegic subject's range of supination. Praise with binary feedback alone functioned only to sustain responding at above baseline levels.

scholarly journals Learning Simple and Complex Second Language Rules Under Implicit, Incidental, Rule-Search, and Instructed Conditions

1996 ◽  
Vol 18 (1) ◽  
pp. 27-67 ◽  
Author(s):  
Peter Robinson
Keyword(s):  
Second Language ◽  
Second Language Acquisition ◽  
Implicit Learning ◽  
Sentence Type ◽  
Transfer Task ◽  
Explicit Learning ◽  
Complex Stimulus ◽  
Differential Effectiveness ◽  
Computerized Training ◽  
The Relationship

This study examines the generalizability of claims by Reber (1989, 1993) about the implicit learning of artificial grammars to the context of adult second language acquisition (SLA). In the field of SLA Krashen (1981, 1982, 1985, 1994) has made claims parallel to those of Reber regarding the differential effectiveness of conscious learning of rules and unconscious incidental acquisition of rules. Specifically addressed are Reber's and Krashen's claims that (a) implicit learning is more effective than explicit learning when the stimulus domain is complex, and (b) explicit learning of simple and complex stimulus domains is possible if the underlying rules are made salient. One hundred four adult learners of English as a second language were randomly assigned to implicit, incidental, rule-search, or instructed computerized training conditions. Speed and accuracy of judgments of novel tokens of easy and hard rule sentence types presented during training were used as dependent measures. Results do not support the first of Reber's and Krashen's claims but do support the second. Implicit learners do not outperform other learners on complex rules, but instructed learners outperform all others in learning simple rules. Analyses of the effect of sentence type and grammaticality on learning suggest a transfer-appropriate processing account of the relationship among consciousness, rule awareness, training, and transfer task performance.

Re-evaluating Dissociations between Implicit and Explicit Category Learning: An Event-related fMRI Study

2011 ◽  
Vol 23 (7) ◽  
pp. 1697-1709 ◽  
Author(s):  
Todd M. Gureckis ◽  
Thomas W. James ◽  
Robert M. Nosofsky
Keyword(s):  
Implicit Learning ◽  
Category Learning ◽  
Neural Activity ◽  
Incidental Learning ◽  
Brain Activity ◽  
Neural Systems ◽  
Explicit Learning ◽  
Learning Condition ◽  
Perceptual Category Learning ◽  
Implicit And Explicit

Recent fMRI studies have found that distinct neural systems may mediate perceptual category learning under implicit and explicit learning conditions. In these previous studies, however, different stimulus-encoding processes may have been associated with implicit versus explicit learning. The present design was aimed at decoupling the influence of these factors on the recruitment of alternate neural systems. Consistent with previous reports, following incidental learning in a dot-pattern classification task, participants showed decreased neural activity in occipital visual cortex (extrastriate region V3, BA 19) in response to novel exemplars of a studied category compared to members of a foil category, but did not show this decreased neural activity following explicit learning. Crucially, however, our results show that this pattern was primarily modulated by aspects of the stimulus-encoding instructions provided at the time of study. In particular, when participants in an implicit learning condition were encouraged to evaluate the overall shape and configuration of the stimuli during study, we failed to find the pattern of brain activity that has been taken to be a signature of implicit learning, suggesting that activity in this area does not uniquely reflect implicit memory for perceptual categories but instead may reflect aspects of processing or perceptual encoding strategies.

scholarly journals Reexposure to a sensorimotor perturbation produces opposite effects on explicit and implicit learning processes

PLoS Biology ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 19 (3) ◽  
pp. e3001147
Author(s):  
Guy Avraham ◽  
J. Ryan Morehead ◽  
Hyosub E. Kim ◽  
Richard B. Ivry
Keyword(s):  
Environmental Changes ◽  
Learning Processes ◽  
Central Component ◽  
Task Structure ◽  
Explicit Learning ◽  
Adaptive Responses ◽  
Visuomotor Rotation ◽  
Rate Of Learning ◽  
Explicit Recall ◽  
Future Learning

The motor system demonstrates an exquisite ability to adapt to changes in the environment and to quickly reset when these changes prove transient. If similar environmental changes are encountered in the future, learning may be faster, a phenomenon known as savings. In studies of sensorimotor learning, a central component of savings is attributed to the explicit recall of the task structure and appropriate compensatory strategies. Whether implicit adaptation also contributes to savings remains subject to debate. We tackled this question by measuring, in parallel, explicit and implicit adaptive responses in a visuomotor rotation task, employing a protocol that typically elicits savings. While the initial rate of learning was faster in the second exposure to the perturbation, an analysis decomposing the 2 processes showed the benefit to be solely associated with explicit re-aiming. Surprisingly, we found a significant decrease after relearning in aftereffect magnitudes during no-feedback trials, a direct measure of implicit adaptation. In a second experiment, we isolated implicit adaptation using clamped visual feedback, a method known to eliminate the contribution of explicit learning processes. Consistent with the results of the first experiment, participants exhibited a marked reduction in the adaptation function, as well as an attenuated aftereffect when relearning from the clamped feedback. Motivated by these results, we reanalyzed data from prior studies and observed a consistent, yet unappreciated pattern of attenuation of implicit adaptation during relearning. These results indicate that explicit and implicit sensorimotor processes exhibit opposite effects upon relearning: Explicit learning shows savings, while implicit adaptation becomes attenuated

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