Abstract P115: Race, Sex, and Geographical Variation in Perceived Racial Discrimination: The Coronary Artery Risk Development in YoungAdults (CARDIA) Study

Introduction: Variation in exposure to discrimination has been proposed as a contributor to disparities in cardiovascular disease (CVD) among black and white women and men in the U.S. Yet, evidence is conflicting, perhaps due to insufficiently studied race-sex and geographical differences in the pathogenicity of discrimination. We hypothesized that the prevalence of perceived racial discrimination in a variety of settings differs by race, sex, and geographic location. Methods: We used data from CARDIA, a population-based cohort of black and white adults recruited in Birmingham, AL; Chicago, IL; Minneapolis, MN, and Oakland, CA in 1985-6 (year 0). Racial discrimination perceived in several scenarios was assessed using the Lifetime Discrimination Scale at years 7, 15, and 20 (2005-6). We assessed the prevalence at each of these exams and in each scenario, stratified by race-sex group. Results: Prevalence of reported discrimination did not differ markedly over time; we report on year 7 only (n=4,025, figure), with qualitatively similar findings at the other years. Reported discrimination in ≥2 scenarios ranged from 52% in Birmingham to 70% in Minneapolis among black women; among black men, from 65% in Birmingham and 75% in Minneapolis and Oakland. This prevalence was <20% among white women and men in every city. Within all groups, discrimination on the street or in a public setting was most prevalent (p<0.001) and least prevalent in receiving medical care (p<0.001). The proportion of black men reporting discrimination by the police or courts was substantially greater than the other three race-sex groups in each of the four cities (all p<0.001). Conclusions: We found variation in the prevalence of reported racial discrimination across race, sex, and geography. Differences in the experience of discrimination may lead to differences in the health-damaging effects of exposure and partially explain inconsistencies in the evidence of discrimination as a cause of disparities in cardiovascular disease between black and white women and men.

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Cardiovascular Health Score and Lifetime Risk of Cardiovascular Disease

Circulation Cardiovascular Quality and Outcomes ◽

10.1161/circoutcomes.119.006450 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 13 (7) ◽

Author(s):

Joshua D. Bundy ◽

Hongyan Ning ◽

Victor W. Zhong ◽

Amanda E. Paluch ◽

Donald M. Lloyd-Jones ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Cardiovascular Disease ◽

Black Women ◽

Black Men ◽

White Women ◽

Cardiovascular Health ◽

United States Public Health ◽

The United States ◽

Lifetime Risk ◽

Men And Women ◽

Risk Of Death

Background: Long-term risks of cardiovascular disease (CVD) according to levels of cardiovascular health (CVH) have not been characterized in a diverse, representative population. Methods and Results: We pooled individual-level data from 30 447 participants (mean [SD] age, 55.0 [13.9] years; 60.6% women; 31.8% black) from 7 US cohort studies. We defined CVH based on levels of 7 American Heart Association health metrics, scored as ideal (2 points), intermediate (1 point), or poor (0 points). The total CVH score was used to quantify overall CVH as high (12–14 points), moderate (9–11 points), or low (0–8 points). We used a modified Kaplan-Meier analysis, accounting for the competing risk of death, to estimate the lifetime risk of CVD (composite of incident myocardial infarction, stroke, heart failure, or CVD death) separately in white and black men and women free of CVD at index ages of <40, 40 to 59, and ≥60 years. High CVH was more prevalent among women compared with men, white compared with black participants, and in younger compared with older participants. During 538 477 person-years of follow-up, we observed 6546 CVD events. In women aged 40 to 59 years, those with high CVH had lower lifetime risk (95% CI) of CVD (white women, 12.6% [2.6%–22.6%]; black women, 0.0%) compared with moderate (white women, 16.6% [13.0%–20.2%]; black women, 12.7% [6.8%–18.5%]) and low (white women, 33.8% [30.6%–37.1%]; black women, 34.7% [30.4%–39.0%]) CVH strata. Patterns were similar for men and individuals <40 and ≥60 years of age. Conclusions: Higher baseline CVH at all ages in adulthood is associated with substantially lower lifetime risk for CVD compared with moderate and low CVH, in white and black men and women in the United States. Public health and healthcare efforts aimed at maintaining and restoring higher CVH throughout the life course could provide substantial benefits for the population burden of CVD.

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Black and White Women's Attitudes toward Interracial Marriage

Psychological Reports ◽

10.2466/pr0.1991.69.3.753 ◽

1991 ◽

Vol 69 (3) ◽

pp. 753-754 ◽

Cited By ~ 6

Author(s):

Pamela S. Paset ◽

Ronald D. Taylor

Keyword(s):

Black Women ◽

White Women ◽

Interracial Marriage ◽

The Other ◽

Research Needs ◽

Response Scale ◽

Men And Women ◽

Black And White

50 white women and 50 black women, US citizens between the ages 18 and 23 years, were asked to rate their attitudes about interracial marriage on a 10-point response scale. The white women were somewhat more favorable, if not significantly so, than the black women about men and women of their race marrying persons of another race. However, scorers at the extremes of the scale were significantly different. The white women tended to cluster at the scale extreme favoring interracial marriage, whereas the black women tended to cluster at the other unfavorable extreme. Implications and research needs are discussed.

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Association of Resting Heart Rate With Blood Pressure and Incident Hypertension Over 30 Years in Black and White Adults

Hypertension ◽

10.1161/hypertensionaha.120.15233 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 76 (3) ◽

pp. 692-698 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Laura A. Colangelo ◽

Yuichiro Yano ◽

David R. Jacobs ◽

Donald M. Lloyd-Jones

Keyword(s):

Black Women ◽

Black Men ◽

Young Adulthood ◽

White Women ◽

Middle Age ◽

White Men ◽

Resting Heart Rate ◽

Incident Hypertension ◽

Black And White ◽

Hazard Ratios

Few studies have assessed the association of resting heart rate (RHR) through young adulthood with incident hypertension by middle age. We investigated the association between RHR measured over 30 years with incident hypertension in a cohort of young Black and White men and women. A joint longitudinal time-to-event model consisting of a mixed random effects submodel, quadratic in follow-up time, and a survival submodel adjusted for confounders, was used to determine hazard ratios for a 10 bpm higher RHR. Race-sex specific effects were examined in a single joint model that included interactions of race-sex groups with longitudinal RHR. Out of 5115 participants enrolled in year 0 (1985–1986), after excluding prevalent cases of hypertension at baseline, 1615 men and 2273 women were included in the analytic cohort. Hypertension event rates per 1000 person-years were 42.5 and 25.7 in Black and White men, respectively, and 36.2 and 15.3 in Black and White women, respectively. The hazard ratios for a 10 bpm higher RHR were 1.47 (95% CI, 1.23–1.75), 1.51 (95% CI, 1.28–1.78), 1.48 (95% CI, 1.26–1.73), and 1.02, (95% CI, 0.89–1.17) for Black men, White men, White women, and Black women, respectively. Higher RHR during young adulthood is associated with a greater risk of incident hypertension by middle age. The association is similarly strong in Black men, White men, and White women, but absent in Black women, which may suggest racial differences in the effect of sympathetic nervous activity on hypertension among women.

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Prevalence and Health Implications of Anti-Gay Discrimination: A Study of Black and White Women and Men in the Cardia Cohort

International Journal of Health Services ◽

10.2190/hpb8-5m2n-vk6x-0fwn ◽

1997 ◽

Vol 27 (1) ◽

pp. 157-176 ◽

Cited By ~ 76

Author(s):

Nancy Krieger ◽

Stephen Sidney

Keyword(s):

Sexual Orientation ◽

Black Women ◽

Black Men ◽

Gender Discrimination ◽

White Women ◽

Health Implications ◽

Black And White ◽

Lifetime Number ◽

Number Of Sexual Partners ◽

And Gender

This study investigates the prevalence of self-reported experiences of discrimination based on sexual orientation among black and white women and men (25 to 37 years old) who are members of CARDIA, a multisite longitudinal study of cardiovascular risk factors. Among the 1,724 participants who responded to a 1989 questionnaire obtaining data on lifetime number of sexual partners and who participated in the Year 7 exam (1992–1993), which included questions about discrimination, 204 (12 percent) reported having at least one same-sex sexual partner: 27 (7 percent) of the 412 black women, 13 (6 percent) of the 221 black men, 87 (14 percent) of the 619 white women, and 77 (16 percent) of the 472 white men. Among these four groups, 33, 39, 52, and 56 percent, respectively, reported having experienced discrimination based on sexual orientation. Additionally, 85 percent of the black women and 77 percent of the black men reported having experienced racial discrimination, and 89 percent of the black women and 88 percent of the white women reported having experienced gender discrimination. In the light of research associating negative stressors with poor health outcomes, including elevated blood pressure, future studies should assess public health implications of discrimination based on sexual orientation, in conjunction with racial and gender discrimination.

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Association between perceived racial discrimination and hypertension: findings from the ELSA-Brasil study

Cadernos de Saúde Pública ◽

10.1590/0102-311x00050317 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 34 (2) ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Patrícia Miranda Mendes ◽

Aline Araújo Nobre ◽

Rosane Härter Griep ◽

Joanna Miguez Nery Guimarães ◽

Leidjaira Lopes Juvanhol ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Black Women ◽

Arterial Hypertension ◽

Racial Discrimination ◽

Poisson Regression ◽

White Women ◽

Reference Group ◽

Robust Variance ◽

Point Estimates ◽

The Usa ◽

Perceived Racial Discrimination

“Pardos” and blacks in Brazil and blacks in the USA are at greater risk of developing arterial hypertension than whites, and the causes of this inequality are still little understood. Psychosocial and contextual factors, including racial discrimination, are indicated as conditions associated with this inequality. The aim of this study was to identify the association between perceived racial discrimination and hypertension. The study evaluated 14,012 workers from the ELSA-Brazil baseline population. Perceived discrimination was measured by the Lifetime Major Events Scale, adapted to Portuguese. Classification by race/color followed the categories proposed by Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE). Hypertension was defined by standard criteria. The association between the compound variable - race/racial discrimination - and hypertension was estimated by Poisson regression with robust variance and stratified by the categories of body mass index (BMI) and sex. Choosing white women as the reference group, in the BMI < 25kg/m2 stratum, “pardo” women showed adjusted OR for arterial hypertension of 1.98 (95%CI: 1.17-3.36) and 1.3 (95%CI: 1.13-1.65), respectively, whether or not they experienced racial discrimination. For black women, ORs were 1.9 (95%CI: 1.42-2.62) and 1.72 (95%CI: 1.36-2.18), respectively, for the same categories. Among women with BMI > 25kg/m2 and men in any BMI category, no effect of racial discrimination was identified. Despite the differences in point estimates of prevalence of hypertension between “pardo” women who reported and those who did not report discrimination, our results are insufficient to assert that an association exists between racial discrimination and hypertension.

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The Intersection of Racial and Gender Attitudes, 1977 through 2018

American Sociological Review ◽

10.1177/00031224211033582 ◽

2021 ◽

pp. 000312242110335

Author(s):

William J. Scarborough ◽

Joanna R. Pepin ◽

Danny L. Lambouths ◽

Ronald Kwon ◽

Ronaldo Monasterio

Keyword(s):

Black Women ◽

Black Men ◽

Latent Class ◽

White Women ◽

General Social Survey ◽

The Other ◽

Gender Attitudes ◽

Race And Gender ◽

Gender Egalitarianism ◽

And Gender

Intersectionality scholars have long identified dynamic configurations of race and gender ideologies. Yet, survey research on racial and gender attitudes tends to treat these components as independent. We apply latent class analysis to a set of racial and gender attitude items from the General Social Survey (1977 to 2018) to identify four configurations of individuals’ simultaneous views on race and gender. Two of these configurations hold unified progressive or regressive racial and gender attitudes. The other two formations have discordant racial and gender attitudes, where progressive views on one aspect combine with regressive views on the other. In the majority of survey years, the most commonly held configuration endorsed gender equality but espoused new racialist views that attributed racial disparities to cultural deficiencies. This perspective has become increasingly common since 1977 and is most prevalent among White women and White men, likely due to racial-group interest. Black women and Black men, in contrast, are more likely to embrace progressive racial and gender attitudes. We argue that White men’s gender egalitarianism may be rooted in self-interest, aimed at acquiring resources through intimate relationships. In contrast, Black men adopt progressive racial and gender attitudes to form a necessary coalition with Black women to challenge racism.

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Strategic Discrimination

Perspectives on Politics ◽

10.1017/s153759272000242x ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 18 (4) ◽

pp. 1068-1087

Author(s):

Regina Bateson

Keyword(s):

Black Women ◽

Black Men ◽

White Women ◽

White Male ◽

World Politics ◽

People Of Color ◽

Political Polarization ◽

Donald Trump ◽

Black And White ◽

And Gender

Why are women and people of color under-represented in U.S. politics? I offer a new explanation: strategic discrimination. Strategic discrimination occurs when an individual hesitates to support a candidate out of concern that others will object to the candidate’s identity. In a series of three experiments, I find that strategic discrimination exists, it matters for real-world politics, and it can be hard to overcome. The first experiment shows that Americans consider white male candidates more electable than equally qualified Black and white women, and to a lesser extent, Black men. These results are strongly intersectional, with Black women rated less electable than either Black men or white women. The second experiment demonstrates that anti-Trump voters weigh Democratic candidates’ racial and gender identities when deciding who is most capable of beating Donald Trump in 2020. The third experiment finds that while some messages intended to combat strategic discrimination have no effect, diverse candidates can increase their perceived electability by showing that they have a path to victory. I conclude by arguing that strategic discrimination is especially salient in contemporary U.S. politics due to three parallel trends: increasing diversity among candidates, growing awareness of sexism and racism, and high levels of political polarization.

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The Economic Progress of Black Women, 1940–1980: Occupational Distribution and Relative Wages

ILR Review ◽

10.1177/001979399204500309 ◽

1992 ◽

Vol 45 (3) ◽

pp. 540-555 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

James S. Cunningham ◽

Nadja Zalokar

Keyword(s):

Black Women ◽

Racial Discrimination ◽

White Women ◽

Census Data ◽

Economic Status ◽

Occupational Status ◽

Black And White ◽

Relative Wages ◽

Economic Progress ◽

Women's Wages

This paper uses Census data on women's wages and occupations from the years 1940–80 to examine long-term trends in black women's relative economic status. The paper links black women's increased relative wages after 1940 to their entry, especially after 1960, into occupations and industries in which they were previously unrepresented, most notably factory jobs and clerical work. The authors find little evidence that convergence in the characteristics of black and white women (increasingly similar education, for example) is responsible for black women's increased relative wages and occupational status and conclude that black women's improved economic status after 1940 was largely due to decreases in racial discrimination by occupation and industry. They also find that in the South racial discrimination had greater adverse effects on black women, and began to decrease later, than in the rest of the country.

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