The Economic Progress of Black Women, 1940–1980: Occupational Distribution and Relative Wages

ILR Review ◽  
1992 ◽  
Vol 45 (3) ◽  
pp. 540-555 ◽  
Author(s):  
James S. Cunningham ◽  
Nadja Zalokar
Keyword(s):  
Black Women ◽  
Racial Discrimination ◽  
White Women ◽  
Census Data ◽  
Economic Status ◽  
Occupational Status ◽  
Black And White ◽  
Relative Wages ◽  
Economic Progress ◽  
Women's Wages

This paper uses Census data on women's wages and occupations from the years 1940–80 to examine long-term trends in black women's relative economic status. The paper links black women's increased relative wages after 1940 to their entry, especially after 1960, into occupations and industries in which they were previously unrepresented, most notably factory jobs and clerical work. The authors find little evidence that convergence in the characteristics of black and white women (increasingly similar education, for example) is responsible for black women's increased relative wages and occupational status and conclude that black women's improved economic status after 1940 was largely due to decreases in racial discrimination by occupation and industry. They also find that in the South racial discrimination had greater adverse effects on black women, and began to decrease later, than in the rest of the country.

Abstract P115: Race, Sex, and Geographical Variation in Perceived Racial Discrimination: The Coronary Artery Risk Development in YoungAdults (CARDIA) Study

Circulation ◽  
2018 ◽  
Vol 137 (suppl_1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Ganga S Bey ◽  
Sharina D Person ◽  
Catarina I Kiefe
Keyword(s):  
Cardiovascular Disease ◽  
Black Women ◽  
Racial Discrimination ◽  
Black Men ◽  
White Women ◽  
Geographic Location ◽  
The Other ◽  
Geographical Differences ◽  
Black And White ◽  
Perceived Racial Discrimination

Introduction: Variation in exposure to discrimination has been proposed as a contributor to disparities in cardiovascular disease (CVD) among black and white women and men in the U.S. Yet, evidence is conflicting, perhaps due to insufficiently studied race-sex and geographical differences in the pathogenicity of discrimination. We hypothesized that the prevalence of perceived racial discrimination in a variety of settings differs by race, sex, and geographic location. Methods: We used data from CARDIA, a population-based cohort of black and white adults recruited in Birmingham, AL; Chicago, IL; Minneapolis, MN, and Oakland, CA in 1985-6 (year 0). Racial discrimination perceived in several scenarios was assessed using the Lifetime Discrimination Scale at years 7, 15, and 20 (2005-6). We assessed the prevalence at each of these exams and in each scenario, stratified by race-sex group. Results: Prevalence of reported discrimination did not differ markedly over time; we report on year 7 only (n=4,025, figure), with qualitatively similar findings at the other years. Reported discrimination in ≥2 scenarios ranged from 52% in Birmingham to 70% in Minneapolis among black women; among black men, from 65% in Birmingham and 75% in Minneapolis and Oakland. This prevalence was <20% among white women and men in every city. Within all groups, discrimination on the street or in a public setting was most prevalent (p<0.001) and least prevalent in receiving medical care (p<0.001). The proportion of black men reporting discrimination by the police or courts was substantially greater than the other three race-sex groups in each of the four cities (all p<0.001). Conclusions: We found variation in the prevalence of reported racial discrimination across race, sex, and geography. Differences in the experience of discrimination may lead to differences in the health-damaging effects of exposure and partially explain inconsistencies in the evidence of discrimination as a cause of disparities in cardiovascular disease between black and white women and men.

Do Black and White Women Hold Different Jobs in the Same Occupation? a Critical Analysis of the Clerical and Service Sectors

1993 ◽  
Vol 21 (4) ◽  
pp. 68-82 ◽  
Author(s):  
Augustin Kwasi Fosu
Keyword(s):  
Black Women ◽  
Critical Analysis ◽  
White Women ◽  
Census Data ◽  
Black Female ◽  
Slight Reduction ◽  
Black And White ◽  
Service Sectors ◽  
Predominantly Female

Employing 1960 and 1981 census data at the three-digit level, the study finds that black and white women were employed at different jobs in the predominantly female clerical and service occupations in both 1960 and 1981. However, there appears to be a slight reduction in black female job dissimilarity with white females between 1960 and 1981 in both occupations. Moreover, while employment of black women, relative to white women, in 1960 was observed to be generally skewed toward the low-paying, low-status jobs in clerical and service occupations, there was little evidence of this trend by 1981. The present results, then, complement previous findings at the more aggregative two-digit level of black female occupational advancement since the mid-1960s.

scholarly journals Unequal Marriage Markets: Sex Ratios and First Marriage among Black and White Women

2018 ◽  
Vol 4 ◽  
pp. 237802311879108 ◽  
Author(s):  
Philip N. Cohen ◽  
Joanna R. Pepin
Keyword(s):  
Black Women ◽  
White Women ◽  
Economic Status ◽  
Sex Ratios ◽  
Logistic Models ◽  
Marriage Markets ◽  
Structural Barriers ◽  
Black And White ◽  
Marriage Rates ◽  
First Marriage

Using the marital events data from the American Community Survey for the first time, we examine the association between the quantity and characteristics of unmarried men and first marriage for Black and White women ages 20 to 45. We incorporate both unmarried sex ratios and the economic status of unmarried men within each racial group using multilevel logistic models. We find higher marriage odds in markets with more (same-race) unmarried men, holding constant women’s own characteristics. In addition, local men’s education and employment rates also predict higher odds of White women’s first marriage. The findings imply that if White and Black women experienced similar unmarried sex ratios in their local markets, the gap in first marriage rates would be much smaller. We conclude that marriage promotion policies may be ineffective in part because they are targeting women who face structural barriers to marriage in their local marriage markets.

scholarly journals Unequal marriage markets: Sex ratios and first marriage among Black and White women

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Philip N. Cohen ◽  
Joanna Pepin
Keyword(s):  
Black Women ◽  
White Women ◽  
Economic Status ◽  
Sex Ratios ◽  
Logistic Models ◽  
Marriage Markets ◽  
Structural Barriers ◽  
Black And White ◽  
Marriage Rates ◽  
First Marriage

Using the marital events data from the American Community Survey for the first time, we examine the association between the quantity and characteristics of unmarried men and first marriage for Black and White women ages 20-45. We incorporate both unmarried sex ratios and the economic status of unmarried men within each racial group, using multilevel logistic models. We find higher marriage odds in markets with more (same-race) unmarried men, holding constant women’s own characteristics. In addition, for White women only, local men’s education and employment rates also predict higher odds of women’s first marriage. The findings imply that if White and Black women experienced similar unmarried sex ratios in their local markets, the gap in first marriage rates would be much smaller. We conclude that marriage promotion policies may be ineffective in part because they are targeting women who face structural barriers to marriage in their local marriage markets.

Behavioral reactivity to acute stress among Black and White women with type 2 diabetes: The roles of income and racial discrimination

2016 ◽  
Vol 21 (9) ◽  
pp. 2085-2097 ◽  
Author(s):  
Angela Bermudez-Millan ◽  
Kristina P Schumann ◽  
Richard Feinn ◽  
Howard Tennen ◽  
Julie Wagner
Keyword(s):  
Type 2 Diabetes ◽  
Racial Discrimination ◽  
White Women ◽  
Acute Stress ◽  
Black And White ◽  
Behavioral Reactivity

Geographical disparities of incidence and prevalence of triple-negative breast cancers: Multistate study data analysis.

2021 ◽  
Vol 39 (15_suppl) ◽  
pp. e12599-e12599
Author(s):  
Hyein Jeon ◽  
Myeong Lee ◽  
Mohammed Jaloudi
Keyword(s):  
Breast Cancer ◽  
Black Women ◽  
Significant Relationship ◽  
White Women ◽  
Triple Negative ◽  
The State ◽  
Luminal A ◽  
Black Females ◽  
Black And White ◽  
State Effect

e12599 Background: Higher prevalence of triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) in black women with associated poor outcomes due to various disparities is well documented within a single state. We examine multiple states to better understand the state effect on such differences in incidence and prevalence of TNBC in black women. Methods: Female patients of ages 19 years old and above with breast cancer from the Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results (SEER) Program across 13 states (608 counties) from 2015 (n = 66,444) and 2016 (n = 66,122) were examined. The relationships between the proportion of black and white women and the rate of patients with different tumor subtypes (luminal A, luminal B, HR-HER2+, and triple negative) were examined at the county level using ordinary least-square regression models. In parallel, due to consideration of various state-specific healthcare policies, socio-cultural norms, and socio-economic disparities, multi-level regression models were applied to examine the nested, random effect of each state on TNBC prevalence in each county. Bonferroni correction was applied to reduce the Type I error caused by repeated use of the same variables in multiple tests. Results: The baseline breast cancer rates between black and white women were similar in the population (0.171% for black and 0.168% for white). Consistent to previous studies, we demonstrate a significant positive correlation (p < 0.001) in TNBC in black females in both years. Surprisingly, when accounted for the random effects on states, 38.2% (2015) and 34.3% (2016) increase in incidence of TNBC in black females were seen, suggestive of state-specific disparity affecting race-specific health. In 2015, other subtypes of breast cancer in both black and white females did not result in significant relationship. Interestingly, in 2016, there was a significant relationship seen between the TNBC rate in white females and the white female population rate only after adjusting for the state effect (p = 0.026). This indicates the impact of non-biological factors such as state-wide health policies. Additionally, HR-HER2+ black females had a significant relationship against respective population rate only after adjusting for the state effect as well (p = 0.0394). For luminal A white females, a 15% decrease in incidence was seen after adjusting for state effect (p = 0.0424). Conclusions: This is the first known across-state examination of breast cancer subtypes by race with random effects on state. This study shows the role of state-specific factors affecting incidence in black and white females and potentially indicates the importance of state-level management for breast cancer on health disparities in addition to race-driven effects. Further studies are needed to elucidate comparable differences between states affecting the rates of various subtypes of breast cancer and thus health outcomes.

Abstract MP008: Racial Differences in Total, Free, and Bioavailable 25(OH)D and PTH Levels and CVD Risk Among Postmenopausal Women

Circulation ◽  
2017 ◽  
Vol 135 (suppl_1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Xi Zhang ◽  
Wanzhu Tu ◽  
Lesley Tinker ◽  
JoAnn E Manson ◽  
Simin Liu ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Vitamin D ◽  
Cohort Study ◽  
Black Women ◽  
Postmenopausal Women ◽  
Racial Differences ◽  
White Women ◽  
Sitting Time ◽  
Cvd Risk ◽  
Black And White ◽  
Circulating Levels

Background: Recent evidence suggests that racial differences in circulating levels of free or bioavailable 25(OH)D rather than total 25(OH)D may explain the apparent racial disparities in cardiovascular disease(CVD).However, few prospective studies have directly tested this hypothesis. Objective: Our study prospectively examined black white differences in the associations of total, free, and bioavailable 25(OH)D, vitamin D binding protein (VDBP), and parathyroid hormone (PTH) levels at baseline with incident CVD in a large, multi-ethnic, geographically diverse cohort of postmenopausal women. Method: We conducted a case-cohort study among 79,705 black and non-Hispanic white postmenopausal women aged 50 to 79 years and free of CVD at baseline in the Women’s Health Initiative Observational Study (WHI-OS). We included a randomly chosen subcohort of 1,300 black and 1,500 white noncases at baseline and a total of 550 black and 1,500 white women who developed incident CVD during the follow up. We directly measured circulating levels of total 25(OH)D, VDBP (monoclonal antibody assay), albumin, and PTH and calculated free and bioavailable vitamin D levels. Weighted Cox proportional hazards models were used while adjusting for known CVD risk factors. Results: At baseline, white women had higher mean levels of total 25(OH)D and VDBP and lower mean levels of free and bioavailable 25(OH)D and PTH than black women (all P values < 0.0001). White cases had lower levels of total 25(OH)D and VDBP and higher levels of PTH than white noncases, while black cases had higher levels of PTH than black noncases (all P values < 0.05). There was a trend toward an increased CVD risk associated with low total 25(OH)D and VDBP levels or elevated PTH levels in both US black and white women. In the multivariable analyses, the total, free, and bioavailable 25(OH)D, and VDBP were not significantly associated with CVD risk in black or white women. A statistically significant association between higher PTH levels and increased CVD risk persisted in white women, however. The multivariate-adjusted hazard ratios [HRs] comparing the extreme quartiles of PTH were 1.37 (95% CI: 1.06-1.77; P-trend=0.02) for white women and 1.12 (95% CI: 0.79-1.58; P-trend=0.37) for black women. This positive association among white women was also independent of total, free, and bioavailable 25(OH)D or VDBP. There were no significant interactions with other pre-specified factors, including BMI, season of blood draw, sunlight exposure, recreational physical activity, sitting time, or renal function. Interpretation: Findings from a large multiethnic case-cohort study of US black and white postmenopausal women do not support the notion that circulating levels of vitamin D biomarkers may explain black-white disparities in CVD but indicate that PTH excess may be an independent risk factor for CVD in white women.

The Natural Hair Bias in Job Recruitment

2020 ◽  
pp. 194855062093793
Author(s):  
Christy Zhou Koval ◽  
Ashleigh Shelby Rosette
Keyword(s):  
Social Media ◽  
Labor Market ◽  
Black Women ◽  
White Women ◽  
Job Applicants ◽  
White Female ◽  
Job Interview ◽  
Natural Hair ◽  
Black And White ◽  
Job Recruitment

Across four studies, we demonstrate a bias against Black women with natural hairstyles in job recruitment. In Study 1, participants evaluated profiles of Black and White female job applicants across a variety of hairstyles. We found that Black women with natural hairstyles were perceived to be less professional, less competent, and less likely to be recommended for a job interview than Black women with straightened hairstyles and White women with either curly or straight hairstyles. We replicated these findings in a controlled experiment in Study 2. In Study 3A and 3B, we found Black women with natural hairstyles received more negative evaluations when they applied for a job in an industry with strong dress norms. Taken together, this article advances the research on biases in the labor market in the age of social media use and highlights the importance of taking an intersectional approach when studying inequity in the workplace.

Neighborhood Racial Composition and Perceptions of Racial Discrimination: Evidence From the Black Women's Health Study

2007 ◽  
Vol 70 (3) ◽  
pp. 272-289 ◽  
Author(s):  
Matthew O. Hunt ◽  
Lauren A. Wise ◽  
Marie-Claude Jipguep ◽  
Yvette C. Cozier ◽  
Lynn Rosenberg
Keyword(s):  
Black Women ◽  
Women’S Health ◽  
Women's Health ◽  
Racial Discrimination ◽  
Census Data ◽  
Health Study ◽  
Racial Composition ◽  
Ethnic Density ◽  
Using Data ◽  
Neighborhood Racial Composition

Little is known about the effects of social context or “place” factors (e.g., characteristics of local populations) on African Americans' perceptions and experiences of racism. Using data from 42,445 U.S. black women collected during the 1997 follow-up wave of the Black Women's Health Study, we investigated the association between neighborhood racial composition (“percent black” at the block-group level in 2000 Census data) and perceptions of racial discrimination. Perceived racial discrimination was measured using self-reports of the frequency of discrimination in “everyday” settings (e.g., being treated as if you are dishonest) and “lifetime” occurrences of discrimination on the job, in housing, and by the police. There was a linear inverse relationship between neighborhood percent black and perceived discrimination, i.e., higher percent black was associated with lower levels of discrimination. Our results support the conclusions that, relative to contexts in which blacks are a small minority, more evenly-mixed (i.e., integrated) contexts result in lower levels of discrimination (contact hypothesis), and mostly black contexts evidence the lowest levels of discrimination (ethnic density hypothesis).

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