High-Fidelity Anthropometric Facial Measurements Can Be Obtained From a Single Stereophotograph From the Vectra H1 3-Dimensional Camera

Background: Anthropometry is a well-established means of measuring facial morphology. Although reliable, direct anthropometry can be time-consuming and not conducive to a busy clinical practice. The Vectra H1 handheld stereophotogrammetric system requires 3 stereophotographs taken from different perspectives to generate a three-dimensional (3D) surface. The time needed to take the 3 stereophotographs can increase the possibility of involuntary movements, precluding its use to assess young patients. To overcome this limitation, we evaluated if accurate linear facial measurements can be obtained from a single stereophotograph and compare these to the measurements taken by direct anthropometry. Methods: Twenty pediatric patients, aged 0 to 10 years, who were undergoing minor surgical procedures at Johns Hopkins All Children’s Hospital were recruited. Fourteen linear facial distances were obtained from each participant using direct anthropometry under general anesthesia. These same distances were measured using Mirror 3D analysis. Intraclass correlation was used to determine intrarater reliability on duplicate 3D images. Results: Correlation coefficients between 3D imaging in frontal view and direct anthropometric measurements were excellent for 13 measures taken, ranging from 0.8 (subnasale to columella and subnasale to stomion superius) to 0.98 (nasion to subnasale and subnasale to labiale superius). Correlation coefficients between submental view and direct anthropometric measurements were excellent for 13 measures as well, ranging from 0.77 (subnasale to columella) to 0.98 (nasion to subnasale). Conclusions: Linear anthropometric measurements taken from 3D surfaces generated from a single stereophotograph correlate closely with direct anthropometric measures. This improves workflow and applicability of anthropometric studies to our youngest patients.

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The Reliability of Two- and Three-Dimensional Cephalometric Measurements: A CBCT Study

Diagnostics ◽

10.3390/diagnostics11122292 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 11 (12) ◽

pp. 2292

Author(s):

Chenshuang Li ◽

Hellen Teixeira ◽

Nipul Tanna ◽

Zhong Zheng ◽

Stephanie Hsiang Yi Chen ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Intraclass Correlation ◽

Three Dimensional ◽

Young Patients ◽

Correlation Coefficients ◽

3D Analysis ◽

Intraclass Correlation Coefficients ◽

Lateral Cephalograms ◽

Adults And Children ◽

Left And Right ◽

Cephalometric Measurements

Cephalometry is a standard diagnostic tool in orthodontic and orthognathic surgery fields. However, built-in magnification from the cephalometric machine produces double images from left- and right-side craniofacial structures on the film, which poses difficulty for accurate cephalometric tracing and measurements. The cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) images not only allow three-dimensional (3D) analysis, but also enable the extraction of two-dimensional (2D) images without magnification. To evaluate the most reliable cephalometric analysis method, we extracted 2D lateral cephalometric images with and without magnification from twenty full-cranium CBCT datasets; images were extracted with magnification to mimic traditional lateral cephalograms. Cephalometric tracings were performed on the two types of extracted 2D lateral cephalograms and on the reconstructed 3D full cranium images by two examiners. The intra- and inter-examiner intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) were compared between linear and angular parameters, as well as between CBCT datasets of adults and children. Our results showed that overall, tracing on 2D cephalometric images without magnification increased intra- and inter-examiner reliability, while 3D tracing reduced inter-examiner reliability. Angular parameters and children’s images had the lowest inter- and intra-examiner ICCs compared with adult samples and linear parameters. In summary, using lateral cephalograms extracted from CBCT without magnification for tracing/analysis increased reliability. Special attention is needed when analyzing young patients’ images and measuring angular parameters.

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Automatic 3D dense phenotyping provides reliable and accurate shape quantification of the human mandible

Scientific Reports ◽

10.1038/s41598-021-88095-w ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 11 (1) ◽

Author(s):

Pieter-Jan Verhelst ◽

H. Matthews ◽

L. Verstraete ◽

F. Van der Cruyssen ◽

D. Mulier ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Repeated Measures ◽

Intraclass Correlation ◽

Three Dimensional ◽

Correlation Coefficients ◽

Surface Registration ◽

Anatomical Landmarks ◽

Centroid Size ◽

Intraclass Correlation Coefficients ◽

Total Variability ◽

Automatic Phenotyping

AbstractAutomatic craniomaxillofacial (CMF) three dimensional (3D) dense phenotyping promises quantification of the complete CMF shape compared to the limiting use of sparse landmarks in classical phenotyping. This study assesses the accuracy and reliability of this new approach on the human mandible. Classic and automatic phenotyping techniques were applied on 30 unaltered and 20 operated human mandibles. Seven observers indicated 26 anatomical landmarks on each mandible three times. All mandibles were subjected to three rounds of automatic phenotyping using Meshmonk. The toolbox performed non-rigid surface registration of a template mandibular mesh consisting of 17,415 quasi landmarks on each target mandible and the quasi landmarks corresponding to the 26 anatomical locations of interest were identified. Repeated-measures reliability was assessed using root mean square (RMS) distances of repeated landmark indications to their centroid. Automatic phenotyping showed very low RMS distances confirming excellent repeated-measures reliability. The average Euclidean distance between manual and corresponding automatic landmarks was 1.40 mm for the unaltered and 1.76 mm for the operated sample. Centroid sizes from the automatic and manual shape configurations were highly similar with intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) of > 0.99. Reproducibility coefficients for centroid size were < 2 mm, accounting for < 1% of the total variability of the centroid size of the mandibles in this sample. ICC’s for the multivariate set of 325 interlandmark distances were all > 0.90 indicating again high similarity between shapes quantified by classic or automatic phenotyping. Combined, these findings established high accuracy and repeated-measures reliability of the automatic approach. 3D dense CMF phenotyping of the human mandible using the Meshmonk toolbox introduces a novel improvement in quantifying CMF shape.

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Integration of digital maxillary dental casts with 3D facial images in orthodontic patients:

The Angle Orthodontist ◽

10.2319/071619-473.1 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 90 (3) ◽

pp. 397-404 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

Zhuoxing Xiao ◽

Zijin Liu ◽

Yan Gu

Keyword(s):

Intraclass Correlation ◽

Three Dimensional ◽

Correlation Coefficients ◽

Reference Standards ◽

Clinical Diagnostics ◽

Step Method ◽

Intraclass Correlation Coefficients ◽

Orthodontic Patients ◽

Facial Images ◽

Dental Casts

ABSTRACT Objective To evaluate three-dimensional (3D) accuracy and reliability of nonradiographic dentofacial images integrated with a two-step method. Methods 3D facial images, cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) images and digital maxillary dental casts were obtained from 20 pre-orthodontic subjects. Digital dental casts were integrated into 3D facial images using a two-step method based on the anterior tooth area. 3D coordinate values of five dental landmarks were identified in both dentofacial images and CBCT images. The accuracy of the integration method was assessed with paired t-tests between dentofacial images and CBCT-based reference standards. Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) were assessed for the reliability of dentofacial images and CBCT-based images. Analysis of variance and Kruskal-Wallis tests evaluated the accuracy of the method in different dimensions. Results There was no statistical difference between dentofacial images and CBCT reference standards in both translational and rotational dimensions (P > .05). Translational mean absolute errors for full dentitions were within 0.42 mm and ICCs were over 0.998 in x, y, and z directions. Rotational mean absolute errors for full dentitions were within 0.92° and ICCs over 0.734 in pitch, yaw, and roll orientations. Integration errors were significantly greater in the first molar, z-translation, and pitch rotation (P < .05). Conclusions Integrating 3D dentofacial images with the two-step method is precise and acceptable for clinical diagnostics and scientific purposes. Errors were greater in the molar region, z-translation, and pitch rotation.

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Measurement of Cortical Dopamine D1 Receptor Binding with [11C]SCH 23390: A Test–Retest Analysis

Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism ◽

10.1097/00004647-200110000-00002 ◽

2001 ◽

Vol 21 (10) ◽

pp. 1146-1150 ◽

Cited By ~ 20

Author(s):

Jussi Hirvonen ◽

Kjell Någren ◽

Jaana Kajander ◽

Jarmo Hietala

Keyword(s):

Sch 23390 ◽

Intraclass Correlation ◽

Three Dimensional ◽

Correlation Coefficients ◽

D1 Receptor ◽

Binding Potential ◽

Intraclass Correlation Coefficients ◽

Cortical Areas ◽

Scan Time ◽

Positron Emission

[11C]SCH 23390 is a standard ligand for positron emission tomography (PET) studies on striatal dopamine D1 receptors. Its usefulness for cortical D1 receptor quantification in human PET studies has been questioned but has not been addressed previously. The authors tested the reproducibility of [11C]SCH 23390 binding potential (BP) in cortical areas in five healthy volunteers using three-dimensional PET. Measurement of D1 receptor BP was reproducible in basal ganglia, as well as in all cortical areas studied (intraclass correlation coefficients between 0.81 and 0.92). The absolute variability in cortical areas was 9.21% ± 0.07%. The reproducibility of cortical D1 receptor BP measurement with [11C]SCH 23390 is equal to that observed with a more recent D1 -ligand, [11C]NNC 112. [11C]NNC 112 produces slightly higher specific-to-nonspecific binding ratios but has markedly slower kinetics resulting in a need for a longer scan time. These aspects should be considered when designing studies on the cortical D1 -like receptors.

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Determination of Facial Symmetry in Unilateral Cleft Lip and Palate Patients from Three-Dimensional Data: Technical Report and Assessment of Measurement Errors

The Cleft Palate-Craniofacial Journal ◽

10.1597/04-138.1 ◽

2006 ◽

Vol 43 (2) ◽

pp. 129-137 ◽

Cited By ~ 35

Author(s):

Emeka Nkenke ◽

Bernhard Lehner ◽

Manuel Kramer ◽

Gerd Haeusler ◽

Stefanie Benz ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Measurement Errors ◽

Cleft Lip ◽

Cleft Lip And Palate ◽

Intraclass Correlation ◽

Three Dimensional ◽

Correlation Coefficients ◽

Intraclass Correlation Coefficients ◽

Surface Areas ◽

Technical Report

Objective To assess measurement errors of a novel technique for the three-dimensional determination of the degree of facial symmetry in patients suffering from unilateral cleft lip and palate malformations. Design Technical report, reliability study. Setting Cleft Lip and Palate Center of the University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Erlangen, Germany. Patients The three-dimensional facial surface data of five 10-year-old unilateral cleft lip and palate patients were subjected to the analysis. Distances, angles, surface areas, and volumes were assessed twice. Main Outcome Measures Calculations were made for method error, intraclass correlation coefficient, and repeatability of the measurements of distances, angles, surface areas, and volumes. Results The method errors were less than 1 mm for distances and less than 1.5° for angles. The intraclass correlation coefficients showed values greater than .90 for all parameters. The repeatability values were comparable for cleft and noncleft sides. Conclusion The small method errors, high intraclass correlation coefficients, and comparable repeatability values for cleft and noncleft sides reveal that the new technique is appropriate for clinical use.

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Reproducibility and reliability of three-dimensional soft tissue landmark identification using three-dimensional stereophotogrammetry

The Angle Orthodontist ◽

10.2319/120715-833.1 ◽

2016 ◽

Vol 86 (6) ◽

pp. 1004-1009 ◽

Cited By ~ 14

Author(s):

Asli Baysal ◽

Ahmet Oguz Sahan ◽

Mehmet Ali Ozturk ◽

Tancan Uysal

Keyword(s):

Soft Tissue ◽

Statistical Significance ◽

Intraclass Correlation ◽

Three Dimensional ◽

Correlation Coefficients ◽

Intraclass Correlation Coefficients ◽

Paired Samples ◽

Landmark Identification ◽

The Difference ◽

Intraexaminer Reliability

ABSTRACT Objective: To evaluate the intraexaminer repeatability and interexaminer reproducibility of soft tissue landmarks on three-dimensional (3-D) stereophogrammetric images. Materials and Methods: Thirty-four stereophotogrammetric images were taken and 19 soft tissue points were identified. The images were obtained using the 3-DMD Face (3-DMD TM Ltd, Atlanta, Ga) system. Two examiners marked 34 images manually with a mouse-driven cursor 4 weeks apart. Intraexaminer marking differences were calculated and classified as <0.5 mm, 0.5–1 mm, and >1 mm. Intraclass correlation coefficients were calculated for intraexaminer reliability. A paired-samples t-test was used to evaluate the difference between the examiners. Interexaminer reproducibility was evaluated by kappa analysis. Statistical significance was set at P < .05. Results: Only one landmark (labiale superior) had an intraexaminer marking difference less than 0.5 mm. Existing landmarks had an intraexaminer difference less than 1 mm, but higher than 0.5 mm. The intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) indicated good intraexaminer repeatability for both observers. The ICC range for examiners 1 and 2 was 0.986–1.000 and 0.990–1.000, respectively. Kappa scores showed good interexaminer agreement, especially on the z-axis. Conclusions: Except labiale superior, the soft tissue landmarks used in this study were shown to have moderate reproducibility, but the difference between the landmarks was less than 1 mm, and they had clinically acceptable reproducibility.

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Reliability of a Three-Dimensional Wound Camera and Correlation With Routine Ruler Measurement in Diabetes-Related Foot Ulceration

Journal of Diabetes Science and Technology ◽

10.1177/1932296820974654 ◽

2020 ◽

pp. 193229682097465

Author(s):

Joel Willem Johan Lasschuit ◽

Jill Featherston ◽

Katherine Thuy Trang Tonks

Keyword(s):

Interobserver Reliability ◽

Pearson Correlation ◽

Intraclass Correlation ◽

Three Dimensional ◽

Correlation Coefficients ◽

Area Measurement ◽

Foot Care ◽

Foot Ulceration ◽

Intraclass Correlation Coefficients ◽

Service Setting

Background: In an era of increasing technology and telehealth utilization, three-dimensional (3D) wound cameras promise reliable, rapid, and touch-free ulceration measurements. However, reliability data for commercially available devices in the diabetes foot service setting is lacking. We aimed to evaluate the reliability of diabetes-related foot ulceration measurement using a 3D wound camera in comparison to the routinely used ruler and probe. Method: Participants were prospectively recruited from a tertiary interdisciplinary diabetes foot service. Ulcerations were measured at each visit by two blinded observers, first by ruler and probe, and then using a 3D wound camera twice. Reliability was evaluated using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC). Measurement methods were compared by Pearson correlation. Results: Sixty-three ulcerations affecting 38 participants were measured over 122 visits. Interobserver reliability of ruler measurement was excellent for estimated area (ICC 0.98, 95% CI 0.97-0.98) and depth (ICC 0.93, 95% CI 0.90-0.95). Intraobserver and interobserver reliability of the 3D wound camera area was excellent (ICC 0.96, 95%CI 0.95-0.97 and 0.97 95% CI 0.96-0.98, respectively). Depth was unrecordable in over half of 3D wound camera measurements, and reliability was inferior to probe measurement. Area correlation between methods was good ( R = 0.88 and 0.94 per observer); however, depth correlation was poor ( R = 0.49 and 0.65). Conclusions: 3D wound cameras offer practical advantages over ruler-based measurement. In diabetes-related foot ulceration, the reliability and comparability of area measurement was excellent across both methods, although depth was more reliably obtained by the probe. These limitations, together with cost, are important considerations if implementing this technology in diabetes foot care.

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Reproducibility of the Evolution of Stride Biomechanics During Exhaustive Runs

Journal of Human Kinetics ◽

10.1515/hukin-2017-0184 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 64 (1) ◽

pp. 57-69

Author(s):

Géraldine Martens ◽

Dorian Deflandre ◽

Cédric Schwartz ◽

Nadia Dardenne ◽

Thierry Bury

Keyword(s):

Intraclass Correlation ◽

Three Dimensional ◽

Correlation Coefficients ◽

Step Length ◽

Stride Frequency ◽

Time To Exhaustion ◽

Centre Of Gravity ◽

Maximal Aerobic Speed ◽

S Period ◽

The Individual

Abstract Running biomechanics and its evolution that occurs over intensive trials are widely studied, but few studies have focused on the reproducibility of stride evolution in these runs. The purpose of this investigation was to assess the reproducibility of changes in eight biomechanical variables during exhaustive runs, using three-dimensional analysis. Ten male athletes (age: 23 ± 4 years; maximal oxygen uptake: 57.5 ± 4.4 ml02·min-1·kg-1; maximal aerobic speed: 19.3 ± 0.8 km·h-1) performed a maximal treadmill test. Between 3 to 10 days later, they started a series of three time-to-exhaustion trials at 90% of the individual maximal aerobic speed, seven days apart. During these trials eight biomechanical variables were recorded over a 20-s period every 4 min until exhaustion. The evolution of a variable over a trial was represented as the slope of the linear regression of these variables over time. Reproducibility was assessed with intraclass correlation coefficients and variability was quantified as standard error of measurement. Changes in five variables (swing duration, stride frequency, step length, centre of gravity vertical and lateral amplitude) showed moderate to good reproducibility (0.48 ≤ ICC ≤ 0.72), while changes in stance duration, reactivity and foot orientation showed poor reproducibility (-0.71 ≤ ICC ≤ 0.04). Fatigue-induced changes in stride biomechanics do not follow a reproducible course across the board; however, several variables do show satisfactory stability: swing duration, stride frequency, step length and centre of gravity shift.

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Validation of a 3D CBCT-based protocol for the follow-up of mandibular condyle remodeling

Dentomaxillofacial Radiology ◽

10.1259/dmfr.20190364 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 49 (3) ◽

pp. 20190364

Author(s):

Pieter-Jan Verhelst ◽

Eman Shaheen ◽

Karla de Faria Vasconcelos ◽

Fréderic Van der Cruyssen ◽

Sohaib Shujaat ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Cone Beam Ct ◽

Intraclass Correlation ◽

Three Dimensional ◽

Mandibular Condyle ◽

Correlation Coefficients ◽

Micro Ct ◽

Gonial Angle ◽

Volume Of Interest ◽

User Friendly

Objectives: Three-dimensional models of mandibular condyles provide a way for condylar remodeling follow-up. The overall aim was to develop and validate a user-friendly workflow for cone beam CT (CBCT)-based semi-automatic condylar registration and segmentation. Methods: A rigid voxel-based registration (VBR) technique for registration of two post-operative CBCT-scans was tested. Two modified mandibular rami, with or without gonial angle, were investigated as the volume of interest for registration. Inter- and intraoperator reproducibility of this technique was tested on 10 mandibular rami of orthognathic patients by means of intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC’s) and descriptive statistics of the transformation values from the VBR. The difference in reproducibility between the two modified rami was evaluated using a paired t-test (p < 0.05). For the segmentation, eight fresh frozen cadaver heads were scanned with CBCT and micro-CT. These data were used to test the inter- and intraoperator reproducibility (ICC’s) and accuracy (Bland–Altman plot) of a newly designed workflow based on semi-automated contour enhancement. Results: Excellent ICC’s (0.94–0.99) were obtained for the voxel-based registration technique using both modified rami. If the gonial angle was not included in the volume of interest, there was a trend of increased operator error suggested by significant higher interoperator differences in translation values (p = 0,0036). The segmentation workflow proved to be highly reproducible with excellent ICC’s (0.99), low absolute mean volume differences between operators (23.19 mm3), within operators (28.93 mm3) and low surface distances between models of different operators (<0.20 mm). Regarding the accuracy, CBCT-models slightly overestimate the condylar volume compared to micro-CT. Conclusions: This study provides a validated user-friendly and reproducible method of creating three-dimensional-surface models of mandibular condyles out of longitudinal CBCT-scans.

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Influence of Radiographic Viewing Perspective on Glenoid Inclination Measurement

Journal of Shoulder and Elbow Arthroplasty ◽

10.1177/2471549218824986 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 3 ◽

pp. 247154921882498 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Peter N Chalmers ◽

Thomas Suter ◽

Matthijs Jacxsens ◽

Yue Zhang ◽

Chong Zhang ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Gold Standard ◽

Intraclass Correlation ◽

Correlation Coefficients ◽

Two Dimensional ◽

Viewing Angle ◽

Plain Radiographs ◽

3 Dimensional ◽

Intraclass Correlation Coefficients ◽

Orthopedic Surgeons ◽

Viewing Perspective

Introduction The purposes of this study were to determine (1) whether glenoid inclination (GI) could be accurately measured on plain radiographs as compared to a gold-standard 3-dimensional (3D) measure and (2) whether GI could be reliably measured on plain radiographs. Materials and Methods Digitally reconstructed radiographs (DRRs) were made from 3D computed tomography reconstructions of 68 normal cadaver scapulae. DRRs were made in a variety of viewing angles. Inclination was measured on these DRRs. These measurements were also made using a gold-standard 3D method. Measurements were made by 2 orthopedic surgeons and 1 surgeon twice, to calculate interrater and intrarater intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs). Results The gold-standard 3D β was 83 ± 5° (72°–98°). On neutral plain radiographs, the mean ± standard deviation 2D β angle was 80 ± 6° (range, 66°–99°). With regard to accuracy, the 2D β angle was significantly different from the 3D β angle, with the 2D β underestimating the 3D β by 5° (95% confidence intervals −1 to 12). With regard to reliability, interrater ICCs for 2D β with a neutral viewing angle was 0.79. Two-dimensional β varied widely with viewing angle from 0.24 to 0.88. Interrater ICCs for the 3D method was 0.83 (0.60–0.92). Intrarater ICCs for all 3 techniques were high (>0.91). Conclusions Two-dimensional radiographic GI measurement is not accurate, as it underestimates the 3D value by an average of 5° when compared to the gold-standard 3D measurement. GI 2D measurement reliability varies with viewing angle on plain radiographs and thus to accurately and reliably measure inclination 3D imaging is necessary.

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