Aspects of Shark Swimming Performance Determined Using a Large Water Tunnel

1990 ◽  
Vol 151 (1) ◽  
pp. 175-192 ◽  
Author(s):  
JEFFREY B. GRAHAM ◽  
HEIDI DEWAR ◽  
N. C. LAI ◽  
WILLIAM R. LOWELL ◽  
STEVE M. ARCE
Keyword(s):  
Body Size ◽  
Swimming Speed ◽  
Swimming Performance ◽  
Beat Frequency ◽  
Swimming Velocity ◽  
Water Tunnel ◽  
Lemon Shark ◽  
Negaprion Brevirostris ◽  
Leopard Shark ◽  
Triakis Semifasciata

A large, sea-going water tunnel was used in various studies of shark swimming performance. The critical swimming velocity (Ucrit, an index of aerobically sustainable swimming speed) of a 70 cm long lemon shark (Negaprion brevirostris Poey) was determined to be 1.1 Ls−1, where L is body length. The Ucrit of the leopard shark (Triakis semifasciata Girard) was found to vary inversely with body size; from about 1.6Ls−1in 30–50cm sharks to 0.6LS−1 in 120cm sharks. Large Triakis adopt ram gill ventilation at swimming speeds between 27 and 60cms−1, which is similar to the speed at which this transition occurs in teleosts. Analyses of tail-beat frequency (TBF) in relation to velocity and body size show that smaller Triakis have a higher TBF and can swim at higher relative speeds. TBF, however, approaches a maximal value at speeds approaching Ucrit, suggesting that red muscle contraction velocity may limit sustained swimming speed. The TBF of both Triakis and Negaprion rises at a faster rate with swimming velocity than does that of the more thunniform mako shark (Isurus oxyrinchus Rafinesque). This is consistent with the expectation that, at comparable relative speeds, sharks adapted for efficient swimming should have a lower TBF. The rates of O2 consumption of swimming lemon and mako sharks are among the highest yet measured for elasmobranchs and are comparable to those of cruise-adapted teleosts.

STUDIES OF TROPICAL TUNA SWIMMING PERFORMANCE IN A LARGE WATER TUNNEL - KINEMATICS

1994 ◽  
Vol 192 (1) ◽  
pp. 45-59 ◽  
Author(s):  
H Dewar ◽  
J Graham
Keyword(s):  
Swimming Performance ◽  
Beat Frequency ◽  
Fork Length ◽  
Swimming Velocity ◽  
Water Tunnel ◽  
Pectoral Fins ◽  
Swimming Mode ◽  
Anatomical Adaptations ◽  
Large Water ◽  
Tropical Tuna

Yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) swimming kinematics was studied in a large water tunnel at controlled swimming velocities (U). Quantified kinematic variables included the tail-beat frequency, stride length (l), caudal amplitude, yaw, the propulsive wavelength, the speed of the propulsive wave (C) and the sweepback angle of the pectoral fins. In general, all variables, except the propulsive wavelength and consequently C, are comparable to values determined for other teleosts. The propulsive wavelength for the tunas (1.23­1.29 L, where L is fork length) is 30­60 % longer than in other cruise-adapted teleosts such as salmonids. The resulting thunniform swimming mode and the morphological and anatomical adaptations associated with the long propulsive wavelength (e.g. fusiform body shape, rigid vertebral column) act to minimize anterior resistance and maximize caudal thrust. The long propulsive wavelength also increases the maximum l which, in concert with the elevated muscle temperatures of tunas, increases their maximum swimming velocity.

THE EFFECT OF SOLID AND POROUS CHANNEL WALLS ON STEADY SWIMMING OF STEELHEAD TROUT ONCORHYNCHUS MYKISS

1993 ◽  
Vol 178 (1) ◽  
pp. 97-108 ◽  
Author(s):  
P. W. Webb
Keyword(s):  
Swimming Speed ◽  
Swimming Performance ◽  
Beat Frequency ◽  
Regression Coefficients ◽  
Steelhead Trout ◽  
Wall Effects ◽  
Fish Swimming ◽  
Wide Channel ◽  
Solid Walls ◽  
Tail Beat

Kinematics and steady swimming performance were recorded for steelhead trout (approximately 12.2 cm in total length) swimming in channels 4.5, 3 and 1.6 cm wide in the centre of a flume 15 cm wide. Channel walls were solid or porous. Tail-beat depth and the length of the propulsive wave were not affected by spacing of either solid or porous walls. The product of tail-beat frequency, F, and amplitude, H, was related to swimming speed, u, and to harmonic mean distance of the tail from the wall, z. For solid walls: FH = 1.01(+/−0.31)u0.67(+/−0.09)z(0.12+/−0.02) and for grid walls: FH = 0.873(+/−0.302)u0.74(+/−0.08)z0.064(+/−0.024), where +/−2 s.e. are shown for regression coefficients. Thus, rates of working were smaller for fish swimming between solid walls, but the reduction due to wall effects decreased with increasing swimming speed. Porous grid walls had less effect on kinematics, except at low swimming speeds. Spacing of solid walls did not affect maximum tail-beat frequency, but maximum tail-beat amplitude decreased with smaller wall widths. Maximum tail-beat amplitude similarly decreased with spacing between grid walls, but maximum tail-beat frequency increased. Walls also reduced maximum swimming speed. Wall effects have not been adequately taken into account in most studies of fish swimming in flumes and fish wheels.

Pectoral fin locomotion in the striped surfperch. II. Scaling swimming kinematics and performance at a gait transition

1996 ◽  
Vol 199 (10) ◽  
pp. 2243-2252 ◽  
Author(s):  
E Drucker ◽  
J Jensen
Keyword(s):  
Body Size ◽  
Swimming Speed ◽  
Beat Frequency ◽  
Small Fish ◽  
Maximal Velocity ◽  
Pectoral Fin ◽  
Gait Transition ◽  
Transition Speed ◽  
Aspect Ratios ◽  
And Performance

In this study, we report the first allometric equations relating gait parameters and swimming speed to body size for fish employing pectoral fin locomotion. Comparisons of locomotor kinematics and performance among striped surfperch (Teleostei: Embiotocidae) are made at the pectoral­caudal gait transition speed (Up-c). Up-c is considered to elicit physiologically equivalent levels of exercise in animals varying over 100-fold in body mass (Mb) by virtue of dynamically similar pectoral fin movements (constant duty factor, length-specific stride length and fin-beat amplitude) and size-independent propulsive efficiency. At Up-c, pectoral fin-beat frequency scales in proportion to Mb-0.12±0.03, a size-dependence consistent with that observed for stride frequency in fishes swimming by axial undulatory propulsion and in many running tetrapods. It is proposed that the similarity in the scaling of frequency in these vertebrate groups reflects an underlying similarity in the allometry of the maximal velocity of muscle shortening. Absolute Up-c (m s-1) generally increases with body size, but the fastest speeds are not exhibited by the largest animals. A pattern of declining performance in fish 23 cm in standard length and longer may be related to their disproportionately small fin areas and aspect ratios. The pronounced negative allometry of Up-c expressed as standard body lengths per second indicates that a given length-specific speed does not induce comparable levels of activity in large and small fish. Thus, normalization of swimming speed to body length may not be a sufficient correction for kinematic comparisons across size.

Pectoral fin locomotion in the striped surfperch. I. Kinematic effects of swimming speed and body size

1996 ◽  
Vol 199 (10) ◽  
pp. 2235-2242 ◽  
Author(s):  
E Drucker ◽  
J Jensen
Keyword(s):  
Body Size ◽  
Swimming Speed ◽  
Beat Frequency ◽  
Limited Range ◽  
The Body ◽  
Small Fish ◽  
Large Fish ◽  
Pectoral Fin ◽  
Transition Speed ◽  
Speed Up

Swimming trials at increasing velocity were used to determine the effects of steady swimming speed on pectoral fin kinematics for an ontogenetic series of striped surfperch Embiotoca lateralis, ranging from 6 to 23 cm in standard length (SL). The fin stroke cycle consisted of a propulsive period, the duration of fin abduction and adduction, and a 'refractory' period, during which the fin remained adducted against the body. Pectoral fin-beat frequency (fp) measured as the inverse of the entire stride period, as in past studies, increased curvilinearly with speed. Frequency, calculated as the reciprocal of the propulsive period alone, increased linearly with speed, as shown previously for tail-beat frequency of fishes employing axial undulation. Fin-beat amplitude, measured as the vertical excursion of the pectoral fin tip during abduction, increased over a limited range of low speeds before reaching a plateau at 0.35­0.40 SL. Pectoral fin locomotion was supplemented by intermittent caudal fin undulation as swimming speed increased. At the pectoral­caudal gait transition speed (Up-c), frequency and amplitude attained maxima, suggesting that the fin musculature reached a physiological limit. The effects of body size on swimming kinematics differed according to the method used for expressing speed. At a given absolute speed, small fish used higher stride frequencies and increased frequency at a faster rate than large fish. In contrast, the relationship between fp and length-specific speed (SL s-1) had a greater slope for large fish and crossed that for small fish at high speeds. We recommend that comparisons across size be made using speeds expressed as a percentage of Up-c, at which kinematic variables influencing thrust are size-independent.

Demography of the central california population of the Leopard Shark (Triakis semifasciata)

1992 ◽  
Vol 43 (1) ◽  
pp. 183 ◽  
Author(s):  
GM Cailliet
Keyword(s):  
Population Growth ◽  
Reproductive Rate ◽  
Shark Species ◽  
Sandbar Shark ◽  
Lemon Shark ◽  
Carcharhinus Plumbeus ◽  
Net Reproductive Rate ◽  
Leopard Shark ◽  
Triakis Semifasciata ◽  
Leopard Sharks

Demographic analyses can be quite useful for effectively managing elasmobranch fisheries. However, they require valid estimates of age-specific mortality and natality rates, in addition to information on the distribution, abundance, habits and reproduction of the population, to produce reliable estimates of population growth. Because such detailed ecological information is usually unavailable, complete demographic analyses have been completed for only four shark species: the spiny dogfish, Squalus acanthias; the soupfin shark, Galeorhinus australis; the lemon shark, Negaprion brevirostris; and most recently the sandbar shark, Carcharhinus plumbeus. In California, reliable estimates of age, growth, mortality, age at maturity, and fecundity are available only for the leopard shark, Triakis semifasciata. A demographic analysis of this species yielded a net reproductive rate (Ro) of 4.467, a generation time (G) of 22.35 years, and an estimate of the instantaneous population growth coefficient (r) of 0.067. If the mean fishing pressure over 10 years (F= 0.084) is included in the survivorship function, Ro and r are reduced considerably, especially if leopard sharks first enter the fishery at early ages. A size limit of 120 cm TL (estimated age 13 years), especially for female sharks, is tentatively proposed for the leopard shark fishery.

scholarly journals The influence of cerebellar lesions on the swimming performance of the trout

1992 ◽  
Vol 167 (1) ◽  
pp. 171-178
Author(s):  
B. L. Roberts ◽  
A. van Rossem ◽  
S. de Jager
Keyword(s):  
Swimming Performance ◽  
Beat Frequency ◽  
Water Tunnel ◽  
Histological Investigation ◽  
Post Mortem ◽  
Rainbow Trout Oncorhynchus Mykiss ◽  
Cerebellar Lesions ◽  
All Speeds ◽  
The Relationship ◽  
Tail Beat

The influence of partial cerebellar ablation on the performance of rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss, swimming in a water tunnel was studied. Before surgery, all fish maintained a steady position in the water tunnel at all speeds tested. A linear relationship was found between the specific velocity (body length s-1) and the tail-beat frequency. After partial cerebellectomy, the fish swam well in the tunnel at low speeds, retaining the relationship between tail-beat frequency and specific velocity, but they were unable to maintain a steady position at water speeds requiring tail-beat frequencies above 3.5 s-1 and were swept backwards. Two sham-operated fish swam at all water speeds tested. Post mortem histological investigation showed that the lesions were restricted to the cerebellar corpus. We conclude that the cerebellum plays no role in the generation of motor programmes but may be essential for their selection and implementation.

Pectoral fin locomotion in batoid fishes: undulation versus oscillation

2001 ◽  
Vol 204 (2) ◽  
pp. 379-394 ◽  
Author(s):  
L.J. Rosenberger
Keyword(s):  
Swimming Speed ◽  
Beat Frequency ◽  
Wave Number ◽  
Phylogenetic Position ◽  
Swimming Velocity ◽  
Pectoral Fin ◽  
Pectoral Fins ◽  
Rhinoptera Bonasus ◽  
Raja Eglanteria ◽  
Fin Length

This study explores the dichotomy between undulatory (passing multiple waves down the fin or body) and oscillatory (flapping) locomotion by comparing the kinematics of pectoral fin locomotion in eight species of batoids (Dasyatis americana, D. sabina, D. say, D. violacea, Gymnura micrura, Raja eglanteria, Rhinobatos lentiginosus and Rhinoptera bonasus) that differ in their swimming behavior, phylogenetic position and lifestyle. The goals of this study are to describe and compare the pectoral fin locomotor behavior of the eight batoid species, to clarify how fin movements change with swimming speed for each species and to analyze critically the undulation/oscillation continuum proposed by Breder using batoids as an example. Kinematic data were recorded for each species over a range of swimming velocities (1–3 disc lengths s(−1)). The eight species in this study vary greatly in their swimming modes. Rhinobatos lentiginosus uses a combination of axial-based and pectoral-fin-based undulation to move forward through the water, with primary thrust generated by the tail. The pectoral fins are activated in short undulatory bursts for increasing swimming speed and for maneuvering. Raja eglanteria uses a combination of pectoral and pelvic locomotion, although only pectoral locomotion is analyzed here. The other six species use pectoral locomotion exclusively to propel themselves through the water. Dasyatis sabina and D. say have the most undulatory fins with an average of 1.3 waves per fin length, whereas Rhinoptera bonasus has the most oscillatory fin behavior with 0.4 waves per fin length. The remaining species range between these two extremes in the degree of undulation present on their fins. There is an apparent trade-off between fin-beat frequency and amplitude. Rhinoptera bonasus has the lowest frequency and the highest fin amplitude, whereas Rhinobatos lentiginosus has the highest frequency and the lowest amplitude among the eight species examined. The kinematic variables that batoids modify to change swimming velocity vary among different species. Rhinobatos lentiginosus increases its tail-beat frequency to increase swimming speed. In contrast, the four Dasyatis species increase swimming speed by increasing frequency and wavespeed, although D. americana also changes wave number. Raja eglanteria modifies its swimming velocity by changing wavespeed and wave number. Rhinoptera bonasus increases wavespeed, Gymnura micrura decreases wave number, and both Rhinoptera bonasus and Gymnura micrura increase fin-tip velocity to increase swimming velocity. Batoid species fall onto a continuum between undulation and oscillation on the basis of the number of waves present on the fins.

Treading water: respirometer choice may hamper comparative studies of energetics in fishes

2019 ◽  
Vol 70 (3) ◽  
pp. 437 ◽  
Author(s):  
Karissa O. Lear ◽  
Nicholas M. Whitney ◽  
Lauran R. Brewster ◽  
Adrian C. Gleiss
Keyword(s):  
Metabolic Rate ◽  
Swimming Speed ◽  
Beat Frequency ◽  
Laboratory Studies ◽  
Kinematic Parameters ◽  
Lower Stress ◽  
Free Swimming ◽  
Negaprion Brevirostris ◽  
Overall Dynamic Body Acceleration ◽  
Tail Beat

Measuring the metabolic rate of animals is an essential part of understanding their ecology, behaviour and life history. Respirometry is the standard method of measuring metabolism in fish, but different respirometry methods and systems can result in disparate measurements of metabolic rate, a factor often difficult to quantify. Here we directly compare the results of two of the most common respirometry systems used in elasmobranch studies, a Steffensen-style flume respirometer and an annular static respirometer. Respirometry trials with juvenile lemon sharks Negaprion brevirostris were run in both systems under the same environmental conditions and using the same individuals. Relationships between metabolic rate, swimming speed, overall dynamic body acceleration (ODBA) and tail beat frequency (TBF) were compared between the two systems. The static respirometer elicited higher TBF and ODBA for a given swimming speed compared with the flume respirometer, although it produced relationships between kinematic parameters that were more similar to those observed in free-swimming animals. Metabolic rates and swimming speeds were higher for the flume respirometer. Therefore, although flume respirometers are necessary for many types of controlled laboratory studies, static respirometers may elicit lower stress and produce results that are more applicable to fish in wild systems.

The interactive effects of feeding and exercise on oxygen consumption, swimming performance and protein usage in juvenile rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

1997 ◽  
Vol 200 (17) ◽  
pp. 2337-2346 ◽  
Author(s):  
D Alsop ◽  
C Wood
Keyword(s):  
Rainbow Trout ◽  
Swimming Speed ◽  
Protein Intake ◽  
Swimming Performance ◽  
Circulatory System ◽  
Minor Component ◽  
Interactive Effects ◽  
Nitrogen Excretion ◽  
Swimming Velocity ◽  
Juvenile Rainbow Trout

The impacts of feeding on the rate of O2 consumption (O2), aerobic swimming performance, nitrogenous waste excretion (ammonia-N and urea-N) and protein utilization as an aerobic fuel were investigated in juvenile rainbow trout. Feeding trout to satiation (in groups of 120) resulted in rapid growth and elevated routine O2 by 68% relative to fasted fish and by 30% relative to trout fed a maintenance ration of 1% of body mass daily. This in-tank O2 of satiation-fed trout was approximately 70% of the O2max observed at the critical swimming speed (UCrit) when trials were performed on individual trout in swimming respirometers. Feeding increased O2 at all swimming speeds; the absolute elevation (specific dynamic action or SDA effect) was dependent on ration but independent of swimming velocity. There was no difference in O2max at UCrit amongst different ration treatments, but UCrit was significantly reduced by 15% in satiation-fed fish relative to fasted fish. These results suggest that the irreducible SDA load reduces swimming performance and that O2max is limited by the capacity to take up O2 at the gills and/or to deliver O2 through the circulatory system rather than by the capacity to consume O2 at the tissues. Ammonia-N and urea-N excretion increased with protein intake, resulting in a 6.5-fold elevation in absolute protein use and a fourfold elevation in percentage use of protein as an aerobic fuel for routine metabolism in satiation-fed trout (50-70%) relative to fasted fish (15%). Urea-N excretion increased greatly with swimming speed in all treatments, but remained a minor component of overall nitrogen excretion. However, even in satiation-fed fish, ammonia-N excretion remained constant as swimming speed increased, and protein did not become more important as a fuel source during exercise. These results suggest that the reliance on protein as a fuel is greatly dependent on feeding quantity (protein intake) and that protein is not a primary fuel for exercise as suggested by some previous studies.

scholarly journals A Method for Estimating the Velocity at Which Anaerobic Metabolism Begins in Swimming Fish

Water ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 13 (10) ◽  
pp. 1430
Author(s):  
Feifei He ◽  
Xiaogang Wang ◽  
Yun Li ◽  
Yiqun Hou ◽  
Qiubao Zou ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Oxygen Consumption ◽  
Swimming Speed ◽  
Crucian Carp ◽  
Anaerobic Metabolism ◽  
Swimming Performance ◽  
Beat Frequency ◽  
Critical Swimming Speed ◽  
Swimming Efficiency ◽  
Rate Of Oxygen Consumption ◽  
Tail Beat

Anaerobic metabolism begins before fish reach their critical swimming speed. Anaerobic metabolism affects the swimming ability of fish, which is not conducive to their upward tracking. The initiation of anaerobic metabolism therefore provides a better predictor of flow barriers than critical swimming speed. To estimate the anaerobic element of metabolism for swimming fish, the respiratory metabolism and swimming performance of adult crucian carp (Carassius auratus, mass = 260.10 ± 7.93, body length = 19.32 ± 0.24) were tested in a closed tank at 20 ± 1 °C. The swimming behavior and rate of oxygen consumption of these carp were recorded at various swimming speeds. Results indicate (1) The critical swimming speed of the crucian carp was 0.85 ± 0.032 m/s (4.40 ± 0.16 BL/s). (2) When a power function was fitted to the data, oxygen consumption, as a function of swimming speed, was determined to be AMR = 131.24 + 461.26Us1.27 (R2 = 0.948, p < 0.001) and the power value (1.27) of Us indicated high swimming efficiency. (3) Increased swimming speed led to increases in the tail beat frequency. (4) Swimming costs were calculated via rate of oxygen consumption and hydrodynamic modeling. Then, the drag coefficient of the crucian carp during swimming was calibrated (0.126–0.140), and the velocity at which anaerobic metabolism was initiated was estimated (0.52 m/s), via the new method described herein. This study adds to our understanding of the metabolic patterns of fish at different swimming speeds.

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