Some Present-Day Critics of Liberalism

1953 ◽  
Vol 47 (1) ◽  
pp. 1-27 ◽  
Author(s):  
Francis W. Coker
Keyword(s):  
Nineteenth Century ◽  
Equal Opportunity ◽  
Voting Rights ◽  
Freedom Of Religion ◽  
Economic Power ◽  
Early Nineteenth Century ◽  
Normal Part ◽  
Ecclesiastical Authority ◽  
Basic Ideas ◽  
Late Modern

“Liberalism” is a late modern word, appearing first (along with “conservatism,” “socialism,” and “communism”) in the early nineteenth century. Its basic ideas are old. The particular freedoms called for have changed as the denials of freedom have changed. The demands have been for liberation from oppressive political rule or intolerant ecclesiastical authority; or from a status of slavery or serfdom; from restraints embodied in laws and customs that hamper the rise of new productive forces, or from limitations on equal opportunity resulting from narrow concentrations of private economic power; from limitations on voting rights and from interferences with freedom of religion, speech, and association. The constant concern has been with pleas for deliverance from restraints which, although perhaps widely regarded at a given time as a normal part of life, have come to be regarded, by some in the community, as unnatural and intolerable.

NATION, GOVERNMENT, AND ‘ANTI-SEMITISM’ IN EARLY NINETEENTH-CENTURY AUSTRIA

2008 ◽  
Vol 51 (1) ◽  
pp. 49-85 ◽  
Author(s):  
WILLIAM D. GODSEY
Keyword(s):  
Nineteenth Century ◽  
Early Modern ◽  
Perceived Threat ◽  
Early Nineteenth Century ◽  
Revolutionary Era ◽  
Anti Semitism ◽  
Imperial Capital ◽  
The Status ◽  
Jewish Descent ◽  
Late Modern

ABSTRACTIn 1808, an Estate of the lesser nobility of the Lower Austrian diet approved a statute barring from membership persons of Jewish descent in the ‘third degree’ regardless of confession. It is the only documented instance in Europe for the revolutionary era of such a paragraph that, in its rejection of Jewish ancestry in both the paternal and maternal lines, resembled the early modern Spanish statutes of ‘blood purity’ and the twentieth-century Nuremberg laws. The Josephian patent of toleration of 1782 had not allowed Jews to become members of the corporate nobility (the first Jew was only ennobled in 1789), but had relieved some of the worst aspects of discrimination. By the early nineteenth century, the archduchy of Lower Austria (including the imperial capital at Vienna) contained the largest, wealthiest, and most self-confident Jewish community in the Hapsburg Monarchy. The statute of 1808 was a reaction to Jewish acculturation to the upper class (including conversion, intermarriage, concessions of property-rights, the existence of salons in which Jews and new Christians mixed with the nobility) that presented a perceived threat to the status of its marginal members (lesser landed nobles, ennobled officialdom, and ennobled professionals). The statute was also a product of the politically and nationally charged atmosphere in Vienna between the Austrian defeat by Napoleon at Austerlitz (1805) and the renewed war against France (1809). No simple ideological continuum connects the Lower Austrian paragraph to either the early modern Spanish or the late modern Nazi ordinances. But it was the first such statute to take shape in a political context fraught with recognizably late modern concepts of ‘nation’. The statute of 1808 furthermore evidences the continuing fractured nature of public authority and lack of thorough-going state-formation in Austria.

scholarly journals When did Ownership Separate from Control? Corporate Governance in the Early Nineteenth Century

2008 ◽  
Vol 68 (3) ◽  
pp. 645-685 ◽  
Author(s):  
ERIC HILT
Keyword(s):  
Nineteenth Century ◽  
Corporate Governance ◽  
Voting Rights ◽  
Early Nineteenth Century ◽  
Ownership Structures ◽  
Large Shareholders ◽  
Capital Tax ◽  
Governance Institutions

This article analyzes the ownership structures and governance institutions of New York's corporations in the 1820s, using a new dataset collected from the records of the state's 1823 capital tax, and from the corporate charters. In contrast to Berle and Means's account of the development of the corporation, the results indicate that many firms were dominated by large shareholders, who were represented on the firms' boards, and held sweeping power to utilize the firms' resources for their own benefit. To address this problem, many firms configured their voting rights in a way that curtailed the power of large investors.“…we complain of directors considering themselves thecompany,when they are merely theagents.”1

French Missionary Priests and Borderlands Catholicism in the Diocese of Bardstown during the Early Nineteenth Century

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Michael Pasquier
Keyword(s):  
Nineteenth Century ◽  
The United States ◽  
Early American Republic ◽  
Early Nineteenth Century ◽  
Early American ◽  
Ecclesiastical Authority ◽  
Antebellum Period ◽  
Institutional Church ◽  
The One ◽  
Spiritual Suffering

An examination of the experiences of French missionary priests in the trans-Appalachian West adds a new layer of understanding to places ordinarily associated with the evangelical Protestant revivals of the Second Great Awakening. Their experiences of material deprivation, physical hardship, spiritual suffering, and lay opposition to ecclesiastical authority prompted some of them to reconsider what it meant to be a Catholic missionary in the early American republic, a context quite different from the one they envisioned. Many had difficulties relating their premigratory expectations of the missionary priesthood to their actual experiences of life within a borderlands diocese constructed by church officials in Rome thousands of miles away from the local populations, regional histories, and geographic obstacles that the foreign clergy would come to know intimately over the course of the early nineteenth century. As church leaders in the United States and Rome gradually broke up the Diocese of Bardstown during the antebellum period, French missionary priests realized that their dreams of establishing a nationwide institutional church and saving the peoples of an entire continent always clashed with the goals of other interest groups in the backwoods of Kentucky.

A history of some fruit models in wax and other materials: scientific teaching aids and courtly table decorations

2003 ◽  
Vol 30 (2) ◽  
pp. 299-316 ◽  
Author(s):  
Hans-JüRgen Lechtreck
Keyword(s):  
Nineteenth Century ◽  
Fruit Trees ◽  
Visual Aids ◽  
Early Nineteenth Century ◽  
Teaching Aids ◽  
Scientific Teaching ◽  
Glass Marble ◽  
History Of ◽  
By Products ◽  
Wax Models

Two early nineteenth century texts treating the production and use of wax models of fruit reveal the history of these objects in the context of courtly decoration. Both sources emphasise the models' decorative qualities and their suitability for display, properties which were not simply by-products of the realism that the use of wax allowed. Thus, such models were not regarded merely as visual aids for educational purposes. The artists who created them sought to entice collectors of art and natural history objects, as well as teachers and scientists. Wax models of fruits are known to have been collected and displayed as early as the seventeenth century, although only one such collection is extant. Before the early nineteenth century models of fruits made from wax or other materials (glass, marble, faience) were considered worthy of display because contemporaries attached great importance to mastery of the cultivation and grafting of fruit trees. This skill could only be demonstrated by actually showing the fruits themselves. Therefore, wax models made before the early nineteenth century may also be regarded as attempts to preserve natural products beyond the point of decay.

Disease and Civilization: A Scottish Atlantic Network of Physicians in the Enlightenment

2017 ◽  
Vol 10 (2) ◽  
pp. 197-216
Author(s):  
Sarah Irving-Stonebraker
Keyword(s):  
Nineteenth Century ◽  
Native Americans ◽  
Early Nineteenth Century ◽  
The Enlightenment ◽  
Historical Progress ◽  
Practice Of Medicine ◽  
Benjamin Rush ◽  
American Physician ◽  
The Relationship ◽  
A Current

Through an examination of the extensive papers, manuscripts and correspondence of American physician Benjamin Rush and his friends, this article argues that it is possible to map a network of Scottish-trained physicians in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth-century Atlantic world. These physicians, whose members included Benjamin Rush, John Redman, John Morgan, Adam Kuhn, and others, not only brought the Edinburgh model for medical pedagogy across the Atlantic, but also disseminated Scottish stadial theories of development, which they applied to their study of the natural history and medical practices of Native Americans and slaves. In doing so, these physicians developed theories about the relationship between civilization, historical progress and the practice of medicine. Exploring this network deepens our understanding of the transnational intellectual geography of the eighteenth and early nineteenth century British World. This article develops, in relation to Scotland, a current strand of scholarship that maps the colonial and global contexts of Enlightenment thought.

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