Einstein’s Intellectual Odyssey to General Relativity

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Hanoch Gutfreund ◽  
Jürgen Renn
Keyword(s):  
General Relativity ◽  
General Theory ◽  
Significant Role ◽  
Equivalence Principle ◽  
Special Theory ◽  
Theory Of Relativity ◽  
General Theory Of Relativity ◽  
Special Theory Of Relativity ◽  
Theory Of Gravitation ◽  
To Come

This section discusses the development of Albert Einstein's ideas and attitudes as he struggled for eight years to come up with a general theory of relativity that would meet the physical and mathematical requirements laid down at the outset. It first considers Einstein's work on gravitation in Prague before analyzing three documents that played a significant role in his search for a theory of general relativity: the Zurich Notebook, the Einstein–Grossmann Entwurf paper, and the Einstein–Besso manuscript. It then looks at Einstein's completion of his general theory of relativity in Berlin in November 1915, along with his development of a new theory of gravitation within the framework of the special theory of relativity. It also examines the formulation of the basic idea that Einstein termed the “equivalence principle,” his Entwurf theory vs. David Hilbert's theory, and the 1916 manuscript of Einstein's work on the general theory of relativity.

Albert Einstein’s Epistemic Virtues and Vices

2021 ◽  
Vol 58 (4) ◽  
pp. 175-195
Author(s):  
Vladimir P. Vizgin ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Field Theory ◽  
General Relativity ◽  
General Theory ◽  
Special Theory ◽  
Theory Of Relativity ◽  
Mathematical Aspect ◽  
General Theory Of Relativity ◽  
Special Theory Of Relativity ◽  
Epistemic Virtues ◽  
The Universe

The article is based on the concepts of epistemic virtues and epistemic vices and explores A. Einstein’s contribution to the creation of fundamental physical theories, namely the special theory of relativity and general theory of relativity, as well as to the development of a unified field theory on the basis of the geometric field program, which never led to success. Among the main epistemic virtues that led Einstein to success in the construction of the special theory of relativity are the following: a unique physical intuition based on the method of thought experiment and the need for an experimental justification of space-time concepts; striving for simplicity and elegance of theory; scientific courage, rebelliousness, signifying the readiness to engage in confrontation with scientific conventional dogmas and authorities. In the creation of general theory of relativity, another intellectual virtue was added to these virtues: the belief in the heuristic power of the mathematical aspect of physics. At the same time, he had to overcome his initial underestimation of the H. Minkowski’s four-dimensional concept of space and time, which has manifested in a distinctive flexibility of thinking typical for Einstein in his early years. The creative role of Einstein’s mistakes on the way to general relativity was emphasized. These mistakes were mostly related to the difficulties of harmonizing the mathematical and physical aspects of theory, less so to epistemic vices. The ambivalence of the concept of epistemic virtues, which can be transformed into epistemic vices, is noted. This transformation happened in the second half of Einstein’s life, when he for more than thirty years unsuccessfully tried to build a unified geometric field theory and to find an alternative to quantum mechanics with their probabilistic and Copenhagen interpretation In this case, we can talk about the following epistemic vices: the revaluation of mathematical aspect and underestimation of experimentally – empirical aspect of the theory; adopting the concepts general relativity is based on (continualism, classical causality, geometric nature of fundamental interactions) as fundamental; unprecedented persistence in defending the GFP (geometrical field program), despite its failures, and a certain loss of the flexibility of thinking. A cosmological history that is associated both with the application of GTR (general theory of relativity) to the structure of the Universe, and with the missed possibility of discovering the theory of the expanding Universe is intermediate in relation to Einstein’s epistemic virtues and vices. This opportunity was realized by A.A. Friedmann, who defeated Einstein in the dispute about if the Universe was stationary or nonstationary. In this dispute some of Einstein’s vices were revealed, which Friedman did not have. The connection between epistemic virtues and the methodological principles of physics and also with the “fallibilist” concept of scientific knowledge development has been noted.

4. Energy, mass, and light

2019 ◽  
pp. 39-51
Author(s):  
Geoff Cottrell
Keyword(s):  
Twentieth Century ◽  
General Theory ◽  
Special Theory ◽  
Theory Of Relativity ◽  
General Theory Of Relativity ◽  
Special Theory Of Relativity ◽  
Speed Of Light ◽  
Space And Time

By the beginning of the twentieth century, our understanding of matter was completely transformed by the great discoveries of electromagnetism and relativity. ‘Energy, mass, and light’ outlines Einstein’s special theory of relativity of 1905, which describes what happens when objects move at speeds close to the speed of light. The theory transformed our understanding of the nature of space and time, and matter through the equivalence of mass and energy. In 1916, Einstein extended the theory to include gravity in the general theory of relativity, which revealed that matter affects space by curving space around it.

scholarly journals MATHEMATICAL EXPANSION OF SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY ONTO ACCELERATIONS

2021 ◽  
Vol 4 (1) ◽  
pp. 69-89
Author(s):  
Jakub Czajko
Keyword(s):  
Proper Time ◽  
Special Theory ◽  
Lorentz Factor ◽  
Theory Of Relativity ◽  
General Theory Of Relativity ◽  
Special Theory Of Relativity ◽  
Accelerator Pedal ◽  
Earth Gravity ◽  
Time Differential ◽  
Theory Of Gravitation

The special theory of relativity (STR) is operationally expanded onto orthogonal accelerations: normal  and binormal  that complement the instantaneous tangential speed  and thus can be structurally extended into operationally complete 4D spacetime without defying the STR. Thus the former classic Lorentz factor, which defines proper time differential  can be expanded onto  within a trihedron moving in the Frenet frame (T,N,B). Since the tangential speed  which was formerly assumed as being always constant, expands onto effective normal and binormal speeds ensuing from the normal and binormal accelerations, the expanded formula conforms to the former Lorentz factor. The obvious though previously overlooked fact that in order to change an initial speed one must apply accelerations (or decelerations, which are reverse accelerations), made the Einstein’s STR incomplete for it did not apply to nongravitational selfpropelled motion. Like a toy car lacking accelerator pedal, the STR could drive nowhere. Yet some scientists were teaching for over 115 years that the incomplete STR is just fine by pretending that gravity should take care of the absent accelerator. But gravity could not drive cars along even surface of earth. Gravity could only pull the car down along with the physics that peddled the nonsense while suppressing attempts at its rectification. The expanded formula neither defies the STR nor the general theory of relativity (GTR) which is just radial theory of gravitation. In fact, the expanded formula complements the STR and thus it supplements the GTR too. The famous Hafele-Keating experiments virtually confirmed the validity of the expanded formula proposed here.

The Annotated Manuscript

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Hanoch Gutfreund ◽  
Jürgen Renn
Keyword(s):  
Gravitational Field ◽  
General Theory ◽  
Equations Of Motion ◽  
Special Theory ◽  
Material Point ◽  
Theory Of Relativity ◽  
General Theory Of Relativity ◽  
Field Equations ◽  
Theory Of Gravitation

This section presents annotations of the manuscript of Albert Einstein's canonical 1916 paper on the general theory of relativity. It begins with a discussion of the foundation of the general theory of relativity, taking into account Einstein's fundamental considerations on the postulate of relativity, and more specifically why he went beyond the special theory of relativity. It then considers the spacetime continuum, explaining the role of coordinates in the new theory of gravitation. It also describes tensors of the second and higher ranks, multiplication of tensors, the equation of the geodetic line, the formation of tensors by differentiation, equations of motion of a material point in the gravitational field, the general form of the field equations of gravitation, and the laws of conservation in the general case. Finally, the behavior of rods and clocks in the static gravitational field is examined.

Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity and the Development of Modified Theories of Gravitation

2020 ◽  
Vol 29 (11) ◽  
pp. 2-9
Author(s):  
Bogeun GWAK, ◽  
Bum-Hoon LEE ◽  
Wonwoo LEE
Keyword(s):  
General Relativity ◽  
Dark Matter ◽  
Dark Energy ◽  
General Theory ◽  
Quantum Gravity ◽  
Theory Of Relativity ◽  
General Theory Of Relativity ◽  
Theory Of Gravitation ◽  
Wave Dark Matter ◽  
Theories Of Gravitation

We briefly review both Einstein’s general theory of relativity and the development of modified theories of gravitation with theoretical and observational motivations. For this, we discuss the theoretical properties and weaknesses of general relativity. We also mention attempts that have been made to develop the theory of quantum gravity. The recent detections of a gravitational wave, dark matter, and dark energy have opened new windows into astrophysics, as well as cosmology, through which tests to determine the theory of gravitation that best describes our Universe would be interesting. Most of all, note that we cannot clearly describe our Universe, including dark matter and dark energy, with standard particle models and the general theory of relativity. In these respects, we must be open-minded and study all possible aspects.

scholarly journals EINSTEIN'S EQUIVALENCE PRINCIPLE AND THE GRAVITATIONAL RED SHIFT

2002 ◽  
Vol 17 (20) ◽  
pp. 2759-2759 ◽  
Author(s):  
PETROS S. FLORIDES
Keyword(s):  
General Relativity ◽  
General Theory ◽  
Equivalence Principle ◽  
Classical Mechanics ◽  
Red Shift ◽  
Theory Of Relativity ◽  
General Theory Of Relativity ◽  
Almost All ◽  
Einstein's Equivalence Principle ◽  
The Relationship

Long before the general theory of relativity was finally formulated in 1916, it was claimed that the following argument, based on (the strong) Einstein's equivalence principle (EP for short), predicted the well known and experimentally observed phenomenon of the gravitational red shift; precisely the same argument is being used to this day in almost all books on general relativity to derive the same phenomenon (see, for example, Refs. 1, 2): Consider "Einstein's elevator" at rest on the Earth's surface with an emitter (E) fixed on the floor of the elevator, and a receiver (R) fixed on the ceiling directly above E and distance h from it. Let E send light signals, at frequency νE, to R and let the frequency at which they are received by R be νR. To find the relationship between νE and νR we invoke the EP and consider, instead, E and R as fixed in an elevator which is accelerating relative to an inertial frame S in gravitation-free space with constant acceleration g in the direction [Formula: see text], g being the acceleration due to gravity on the Earth's surface. At time t = 0, when E is assumed to be at rest in S, E emits a light wave towards R. The time it takes the wave to reach R is roughly t = h/c, where c is the speed of light in S. But in this time R has acquired the velocity [Formula: see text] and, therefore, there is a consequent Doppler shift given by [Formula: see text]. By the EP the same result must hold when E and R are fixed near the Earth's surface. In this case gh = △Φ = Φ(R) - Φ(E), so that in the Earth's gravitational field we have [Formula: see text], which is the standard formula for the gravitational red shift. Simple and straight forward as the above argument may seem, we shall show in this lecture that it is, in fact, fundamentally flawed in two important respects. We shall present a new argument, entirely within the framework of classical mechanics (just as the above argument), which is free from these two flaws. Alas!, it leads to zero gravitational red shift for the case dealt with in the above argument. It is argued that this result not only does it not invalidate the general theory of relativity but it strengthens it; for, the full theory of general relativity alone, irrespective of its historical development, can correctly and unambiguously predict the observed gravitational red shift.

scholarly journals Inconsistency between the general theory of relativity and the experimental results of Faraday's unipolar inductor

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Konstantinos Patrinos
Keyword(s):  
General Theory ◽  
Electromotive Force ◽  
Special Theory ◽  
Point Of View ◽  
Experimental Results ◽  
Theory Of Relativity ◽  
General Theory Of Relativity ◽  
Special Theory Of Relativity ◽  
Rotating System ◽  
Quantitative Estimates

The non-inertiality of the rotating system of Faraday's unipolar generator forces us to address this problem using the principles of the general theory of relativity. The purpose of this study is to compare the theoretical quantitative estimates of induced electromotive force with the experimental results obtained from the corresponding measurements. The theoretical elaboration of this issue proves that the differences between the results of the general theory in relation to those of the special theory of relativity are some negligible terms, which are due to the non-inertiality of the rotating reference system. This result enables us to consider the theoretical estimates based on special and general relativity as equivalent, with quite satisfactory accuracy. Therefore, a very serious issue of inconsistency between the theory of relativity and the measurements of induced electromotive force emerges, since as already shown in the existing literature, this inconsistency, from the point of view of the special theory of relativity, is already proven.

scholarly journals The Clock Paradox and the General Theory of Relativity

1957 ◽  
Vol 10 (1) ◽  
pp. 207 ◽  
Author(s):  
GR Isaak
Keyword(s):  
General Theory ◽  
Special Theory ◽  
Space Time ◽  
Theory Of Relativity ◽  
Time Diagram ◽  
General Theory Of Relativity ◽  
Special Theory Of Relativity ◽  
Clock Paradox

The clock paradox (Dingle 1956; McCrea 1956) which arises when the Special Theory of Relativity is applied to the problem of two identical clocks having different histories in the space time diagram is resolved by the General Theory of Relativity (G.T.R.) (Tolman 1934).

scholarly journals Inconsistency between the general theory of relativity and the experimental results of Faraday's unipolar inductor

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Konstantinos Patrinos
Keyword(s):  
General Theory ◽  
Electromotive Force ◽  
Special Theory ◽  
Point Of View ◽  
Experimental Results ◽  
Theory Of Relativity ◽  
General Theory Of Relativity ◽  
Special Theory Of Relativity ◽  
Rotating System ◽  
Quantitative Estimates

The non-inertiality of the rotating system of Faraday's unipolar generator forces us to address this problem using the principles of the general theory of relativity. The purpose of this study is to compare the theoretical quantitative estimates of induced electromotive force with the experimental results obtained from the corresponding measurements. The theoretical elaboration of this issue proves that the differences between the results of the general theory in relation to those of the special theory of relativity are some negligible terms, which are due to the non-inertiality of the rotating reference system. This result enables us to consider the theoretical estimates based on special and general relativity as equivalent, with quite satisfactory accuracy. Therefore, a very serious issue of inconsistency between the theory of relativity and the measurements of induced electromotive force emerges, since as already shown in the existing literature, this inconsistency, from the point of view of the special theory of relativity, is already proven.

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