Perceived Difficulty and Motivated Cognitive Effort in a Computer-Simulated Forest Firefighting Task

1994 ◽  
Vol 79 (1) ◽  
pp. 115-127 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mary M. Omodei ◽  
Alexander J. Wearing
Keyword(s):  
Cognitive Task ◽  
Cognitive Effort ◽  
Expectancy Value ◽  
Psychological Phenomena ◽  
Significant Relationships ◽  
Perceived Difficulty ◽  
Research Designs

Two studies ( ns 28 and 55) were conducted to investigate the extent to which proposed relationships between perceived difficulty and motivated cognitive effort generalise to realistic, complex, ill-defined, ongoing situations. A computerised microworld generator, Fire Chief, was used to create an appropriate cognitive task. Using complementary research designs, no significant relationships were obtained between either perceived difficulty or proximity to preferred difficulty and on-task motivated cognitive effort assessed by self-referent importance, intended effort, and subjectively felt arousal. The implications of these findings for expectancy-value approaches to motivation are discussed. Attention is drawn to the extent to which the two studies illustrate the use of the Fire Chief microworld generator for the investigation of psychological phenomena.

scholarly journals Utilizing the Expectancy Value Theory to Predict Lecturer Motivation to Apply Culturally Responsive Pedagogies in Universities in Botswana

2021 ◽  
Vol 20 (7) ◽  
pp. 192-209
Author(s):  
Norman Rudhumbu ◽  
Elize du Plessis
Keyword(s):  
Structural Equation ◽  
Culturally Responsive ◽  
Culturally Diverse ◽  
Value Theory ◽  
Expectancy Value Theory ◽  
Expectancy Value ◽  
Significant Relationships ◽  
Confirmatory Factor ◽  
Heterogeneous Classes ◽  
Structured Questionnaire

The expectancy value theory (EVT) has been used in many studies to predict the motivation processes of individuals with regard to how they think and act in particular ways. Critical to how individuals think and act are the three elements of the EVT, namely the expectancy cognition (expectancy), instrumentality cognition (instrumentality) and valence. This study therefore seeks to establish whether the EVT could be used to predict and explain the motivation of lecturers to apply culturally responsive pedagogies (CRPs) in the teaching of culturally heterogeneous classes in universities in Botswana. Using a sample of 291 lecturers from three selected universities, the study employed a structured questionnaire for data collection. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used for data purification. Structural equation modelling (SEM) using AMOS version 22 was used for data analysis. The study established that the expectancy (β = .419; p < .001) and instrumentality (β = .315; p < .001) cognitions of lecturers as well as the valence (β = .268; p < .001) had a significant influence on the motivation of lecturers to apply CRPs in the teaching of culturally heterogeneous classes in universities. These results also showed significant relationships between expectancy cognition and valence (β = .316; p < .001) and also between instrumentality cognition and valence (β = .301; p < .001). These results therefore demonstrate that the EVT could be used to predict the motivation of lecturers in universities to apply CRPs in their teaching of culturally diverse university students.

scholarly journals Effective Gamification of the Stop-Signal Task: Two Controlled Laboratory Experiments (Preprint)

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Maximilian Achim Friehs ◽  
Martin Dechant ◽  
Sarah Vedress ◽  
Christian Frings ◽  
Regan Lee Mandryk
Keyword(s):  
Data Quality ◽  
Cognitive Task ◽  
Objective Assessment ◽  
Cognitive Effort ◽  
Stop Signal ◽  
Drop Out ◽  
Stop Signal Task ◽  
Participant Engagement ◽  
Task Instructions ◽  
Prepotent Responses

BACKGROUND A lack of ability to inhibit prepotent responses, or more generally a lack of impulse control, is associated with several disorders such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and schizophrenia as well as general damage to the prefrontal cortex. A stop-signal task (SST) is a reliable and established measure of response inhibition. However, using the SST as an objective assessment in diagnostic or research-focused settings places significant stress on participants as the task itself requires concentration and cognitive effort and is not particularly engaging. This can lead to decreased motivation to follow task instructions and poor data quality, which can affect assessment efficacy and might increase drop-out rates. Gamification—the application of game-based elements in nongame settings—has shown to improve engaged attention to a cognitive task, thus increasing participant motivation and data quality. OBJECTIVE This study aims to design a gamified SST that improves participants’ engagement and validate this gamified SST against a standard SST. METHODS We described the design of our gamified SST and reported on 2 separate studies that aim to validate the gamified SST relative to a standard SST. In study 1, a within-subject design was used to compare the performance of the SST and a stop-signal game (SSG). In study 2, we added eye tracking to the procedure to determine if overt attention was affected and aimed to replicate the findings from study 1 in a between-subjects design. Furthermore, in both studies, flow and motivational experiences were measured. RESULTS In contrast, the behavioral performance was comparable between the tasks (<i>P</i>&lt;.87; BF01=2.87), and the experience of flow and intrinsic motivation were rated higher in the SSG group, although this difference was not significant. CONCLUSIONS Overall, our findings provide evidence that the gamification of SST is possible and that the SSG is enjoyed more. Thus, when participant engagement is critical, we recommend using the SSG instead of the SST.

The Case of the Cognitive (Opti)miser: Electrophysiological Correlates of Working Memory Maintenance Predict Demand Avoidance

2020 ◽  
Vol 32 (8) ◽  
pp. 1550-1561
Author(s):  
Jeffrey Nador ◽  
Assaf Harel ◽  
Ion Juvina ◽  
Brandon Minnery
Keyword(s):  
Working Memory ◽  
Individual Differences ◽  
Cognitive Control ◽  
Cognitive Task ◽  
Cognitive Effort ◽  
Task Demands ◽  
Match To Sample ◽  
Irrelevant Distractors ◽  
Filtering Efficiency ◽  
Task Irrelevant

People are often considered cognitive misers. When given a free choice between two tasks, people tend to choose tasks requiring less cognitive effort. Such demand avoidance (DA) is associated with cognitive control, but it is still not clear to what extent individual differences in cognitive control can account for variations in DA. We sought to elucidate the relation between cognitive control and cognitive effort preferences by investigating the extent to which sustained neural activity in a task requiring cognitive control is correlated with DA. We hypothesized that neural measures of efficient filtering will predict individual variations in demand preferences. To test this hypothesis, we had participants perform a delayed-match-to-sample paradigm with their ERPs recorded, as well as a separate behavioral demand-selection task. We focused on the ERP correlates of cognitive filtering efficiency (CFE)—the ability to ignore task-irrelevant distractors during working memory maintenance—as it manifests in a modulation of the contralateral delay activity, an ERP correlate of cognitive control. As predicted, we found a significant positive correlation between CFE and DA. Individuals with high CFE tended to be significantly more demand avoidant than their low-CFE counterparts. Low-CFE individuals, in comparison, did not form distinct cognitive effort preferences. Overall, our results suggest that cognitive control over the contents of visual working memory contribute to individual differences in the expression of cognitive effort preferences. This further implies that these observed preferences are the product of sensitivity to cognitive task demands.

Evaluating ANSI Z535-Formatted Warning Labels as an Integrative System

2016 ◽  
Vol 60 (1) ◽  
pp. 1642-1646 ◽  
Author(s):  
Michael J. Kalsher ◽  
William G. Obenauer ◽  
Christopher F. Weiss
Keyword(s):  
Relative Effectiveness ◽  
Small Sample ◽  
Warning Label ◽  
Experimental Conditions ◽  
Positive Effects ◽  
Integrative System ◽  
Significant Relationships ◽  
Compliance Behavior ◽  
Research Designs ◽  
Small Sample Sizes

Debate continues regarding the relative effectiveness of the ANSI Z535 guidelines for the design and placement of warnings. Research shows consistent positive effects of these guidelines on precursors to warning compliance (e.g., noticing, reading, intended compliance), but less consistency on compliance behavior. Challenges in interpreting these findings stem from factors such as small sample sizes, varying research designs and experimental conditions, and treating the ANSI Z535 guidelines as a singular entity rather than as an integrative system of separable features. Here, we address these issues by testing perceptions of warning label effectiveness using a large sample ( n=533) and systematically manipulating variables cited in the Z535 guidelines. Collectively, we tested eight label designs for a (2-drawer and 4-drawer) file cabinet and found statistically significant relationships between design recommendations from the ANSI Z535 guidelines and perceptions of effectiveness. The presence of a warning header and pictogram exerted the largest effects. Bulleted text and (larger) font size were also related to increased perceptions of effectiveness.

scholarly journals Effective Gamification of the Stop-Signal Task: Two Controlled Laboratory Experiments

10.2196/17810 ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 8 (3) ◽  
pp. e17810 ◽  
Author(s):  
Maximilian Achim Friehs ◽  
Martin Dechant ◽  
Sarah Vedress ◽  
Christian Frings ◽  
Regan Lee Mandryk
Keyword(s):  
Data Quality ◽  
Cognitive Task ◽  
Objective Assessment ◽  
Cognitive Effort ◽  
Stop Signal ◽  
Drop Out ◽  
Stop Signal Task ◽  
Participant Engagement ◽  
Task Instructions ◽  
Prepotent Responses

Background A lack of ability to inhibit prepotent responses, or more generally a lack of impulse control, is associated with several disorders such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and schizophrenia as well as general damage to the prefrontal cortex. A stop-signal task (SST) is a reliable and established measure of response inhibition. However, using the SST as an objective assessment in diagnostic or research-focused settings places significant stress on participants as the task itself requires concentration and cognitive effort and is not particularly engaging. This can lead to decreased motivation to follow task instructions and poor data quality, which can affect assessment efficacy and might increase drop-out rates. Gamification—the application of game-based elements in nongame settings—has shown to improve engaged attention to a cognitive task, thus increasing participant motivation and data quality. Objective This study aims to design a gamified SST that improves participants’ engagement and validate this gamified SST against a standard SST. Methods We described the design of our gamified SST and reported on 2 separate studies that aim to validate the gamified SST relative to a standard SST. In study 1, a within-subject design was used to compare the performance of the SST and a stop-signal game (SSG). In study 2, we added eye tracking to the procedure to determine if overt attention was affected and aimed to replicate the findings from study 1 in a between-subjects design. Furthermore, in both studies, flow and motivational experiences were measured. Results In contrast, the behavioral performance was comparable between the tasks (P<.87; BF01=2.87), and the experience of flow and intrinsic motivation were rated higher in the SSG group, although this difference was not significant. Conclusions Overall, our findings provide evidence that the gamification of SST is possible and that the SSG is enjoyed more. Thus, when participant engagement is critical, we recommend using the SSG instead of the SST.

scholarly journals A Novel Pupillometric Method for Indexing Word Difficulty in Individuals With and Without Aphasia

2015 ◽  
Vol 58 (5) ◽  
pp. 1508-1520 ◽  
Author(s):  
Laura R. Chapman ◽  
Brooke Hallowell
Keyword(s):  
Cognitive Task ◽  
Preliminary Evidence ◽  
Cognitive Effort ◽  
Pupil Dilation ◽  
Assessment Methods ◽  
Linguistic Processing ◽  
Pupillary Responses ◽  
Assessment And Treatment ◽  
Novel Method ◽  
Word Difficulty

Purpose Cognitive effort is a clinically important facet of linguistic processing that is often overlooked in the assessment and treatment of people with aphasia (PWA). Furthermore, there is a paucity of valid ways to index cognitive effort in PWA. The construct of cognitive effort has been indexed for decades via pupillometry (measurement of pupil dilation and constriction during a cognitive task), yet pupillometry has not been implemented in studies including PWA. In the present study, we tested a novel method for indexing cognitive effort during linguistic processing in people with and without aphasia. Method Forty control participants and 39 PWA listened to semantically easy and difficult single nouns and looked at images while their pupillary responses were monitored. Mean pupil dilation in response to easy versus difficult nouns was calculated to index cognitive effort. Results Larger mean pupil dilation values were obtained for difficult compared with easy nouns for both groups. Conclusion Results provide preliminary evidence that pupillometry can be used to index cognitive effort during linguistic processing of single nouns in people with and without aphasia. Methods for indexing cognitive effort will be a valuable addition to existing assessment methods. Suggestions for further research are offered.

scholarly journals Attention, Not Performance, Correlates With Afterdischarge Termination During Cortical Stimulation

2021 ◽  
Vol 14 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ronald P. Lesser ◽  
W. R. S. Webber ◽  
Diana L. Miglioretti ◽  
Yuko Mizuno-Matsumoto ◽  
Ayumi Muramatsu ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Brain Mapping ◽  
Brain Activity ◽  
Cognitive Task ◽  
Cognitive Effort ◽  
Cortical Stimulation ◽  
Functional Responses ◽  
Task Execution ◽  
Functional Regions ◽  
Functional Localization ◽  
Brain Changes

Cortical stimulation has been used for brain mapping for over a century, and a standard assumption is that stimulation interferes with task execution due to local effects at the stimulation site. Stimulation can however produce afterdischarges which interfere with functional localization and can lead to unwanted seizures. We previously showed that (a) cognitive effort can terminate these afterdischarges, (b) when termination thus occurs, there are electrocorticography changes throughout the cortex, not just at sites with afterdischarges or sites thought functionally important for the cognitive task used, and (c) thresholds for afterdischarges and functional responses can change among stimulation trials. We here show that afterdischarge termination can occur prior to overt performance of the cognitive tasks used to terminate them. These findings, taken together, demonstrate that task-related brain changes are not limited to one or a group of functional regions or a specific network, and not limited to the time directly surrounding overt task execution. Discrete locations, networks and times importantly underpin clinical behaviors. However, brain activity that is diffuse in location and extended in time also affect task execution and can affect brain mapping. This may in part reflect fluctuating levels of attention, engagement, or motivation during testing.

scholarly journals Harder, Better, Faster, Stronger? The Relationship between Cognitive Task Demands in Video Games and Recovery Experiences

2019 ◽  
Vol 7 (4) ◽  
pp. 166-175 ◽  
Author(s):  
Tim Wulf ◽  
Diana Rieger ◽  
Anna Sophie Kümpel ◽  
Leonard Reinecke
Keyword(s):  
Video Games ◽  
Cognitive Task ◽  
Interactive Media ◽  
Cognitive Effort ◽  
Task Demands ◽  
Task Demand ◽  
Psychological Detachment ◽  
Recovery Experiences ◽  
And Control

Research has repeatedly demonstrated that the use of interactive media is associated with recovery experiences, suggesting that engaging with media can help people to alleviate stress and restore mental and physical resources. Video games, in particular, have been shown to fulfil various aspects of recovery, not least due to their ability to elicit feelings of mastery and control. However, little is known about the role of cognitive task demand (i.e., the amount of cognitive effort a task requires) in that process. Toward this end, our study aimed to investigate how cognitive task demand during gameplay affects users’ recovery experiences. Results of a laboratory experiment suggest that different dimensions of the recovery experiences seem to respond to different levels of cognitive task demand. While control experiences were highest under low cognitive task demand, there was no difference between groups regarding experiences of mastery and psychological detachment. Nevertheless, both gaming conditions outperformed the control condition regarding experiences of mastery and psychological detachment. Controlling for personal gaming experiences, relaxation was higher in the low cognitive task demand condition compared to the control condition. Findings are discussed in terms of their implications for research on the multilayered recovery effects of interactive media.

scholarly journals Measuring vulnerability to depression: The Serbian scrambled sentences test - SSST

Psihologija ◽  
2014 ◽  
Vol 47 (1) ◽  
pp. 33-48 ◽  
Author(s):  
Zdenka Novovic ◽  
Ljiljana Mihic ◽  
Miklos Biro ◽  
Snezana Tovilovic
Keyword(s):  
Cognitive Bias ◽  
Cognitive Task ◽  
Cognitive Effort ◽  
Reliable Measure ◽  
Digit Number ◽  
Reliable Instrument ◽  
Suppression Tendency

The goal of this study was to establish whether the SSST, a Serbian language scrambled sentences instrument, is a reliable measure of depressive cognitive bias, and whether it captures the suppression tendency as participants exert the additional cognitive effort of memorizing a six-digit number while completing the task. The sample consisted of 1071 students, randomly assigned into two groups. They completed the SSST divided into two blocks of 28 sentences, together with additional cognitive task during either the first or second block, and after that a number of instruments to establish validity of the SSST. The test was shown to be a reliable instrument of depressive cognitive bias. As a measure of suppression the SSST performed partly as expected, only when load was applied in the second half of the test, and fatigue and cognitive effort enhanced suppression. The advantages of the test versus self-description measures were discussed.

The Differential Effect of Event Rate on Pupil Dilation Patterns Suggests Effort Dysregulation Problems in ADHD

2017 ◽  
Vol 41 (S1) ◽  
pp. S635-S635 ◽  
Author(s):  
B. Metin ◽  
E. Sonuga-Barke ◽  
J.R. Wiersema ◽  
H. Roeyers ◽  
S. Vermeir
Keyword(s):  
Event Rate ◽  
Cognitive Task ◽  
State Regulation ◽  
Cognitive Effort ◽  
Pupil Dilation ◽  
Eye Tracker ◽  
Children With Adhd ◽  
Effort Allocation ◽  
Regulation Model ◽  
Age Range

IntroductionThe state regulation model postulates that ADHD performance difficulties result from failures to regulate activation states in response to changing environmental conditions – producing poor performance under sub-optimal conditions. Behavioral and electrophysiological studies involving the manipulation of event rate (ER) lend support to this idea.AimIn this preliminary study, we extended this investigation by comparing pupil dilation, an established marker of cognitive effort allocation, in individuals with ADHD, and controls, in response to varying ERs on a simple cognitive task.MethodsNineteen children with ADHD (age range: 8–14 years) and 21 controls (age range: 10–16 years) completed a target detection task under three different ERs (1300, 4000, and 8000 msec). Pupil dilation was monitored using an eye-tracker.ResultsOur results show that for controls, pupil dilation to targets varied as a function of ER according to a “U” function – with fast and slow ERs inducing greater phasic dilation than the moderate ER. However, for children with ADHD the relationship was linear with dilation increasing as ER decreased.ConclusionsThe results provide the first pupillary evidence suggestive of effort allocation dysregulation in ADHD especially under fast event rate conditions. Future studies should explore interventions to overcome effort allocation problems.Disclosure of interestThe authors have not supplied their declaration of competing interest.

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